Abstract
This study examined the prevalence, predictors, and outcomes of spanking and verbal punishment in 2,573 low-income White, African American, and Mexican American toddlers at ages 1, 2, and 3. Both spanking and verbal punishment varied by maternal race/ethnicity. Child fussiness at age 1 predicted spanking and verbal punishment at all 3 ages. Cross-lagged path analyses indicated that spanking (but not verbal punishment) at age 1 predicted child aggressive behavior problems at age 2 and lower Bayley mental development scores at age 3. Neither child aggressive behavior problems nor Bayley scores predicted later spanking or verbal punishment. In some instances, maternal race/ethnicity and/or emotional responsiveness moderated the effects of spanking and verbal punishment on child outcomes.
Publication types
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
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Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.
MeSH terms
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Adaptation, Psychological*
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Age Factors
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Aggression
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Black or African American / psychology
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Black or African American / statistics & numerical data
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Child Behavior / ethnology
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Child Behavior / psychology
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Child Behavior Disorders / ethnology
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Child Development
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Child Rearing / ethnology*
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Child Rearing / psychology*
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Child, Preschool
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Cross-Cultural Comparison
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Female
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Humans
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Infant
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Interviews as Topic
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Male
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Maternal Behavior / ethnology
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Mexican Americans / psychology
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Mexican Americans / statistics & numerical data
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Mother-Child Relations / ethnology*
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Poverty / ethnology
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Poverty / psychology
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Punishment / psychology*
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Socioeconomic Factors
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United States
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White People / psychology
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White People / statistics & numerical data