Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prevention and Treatment of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting

  • Disease Management
  • Published:
Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Pain, nausea and vomiting are frequently listed by patients as their most important perioperative concerns. With the change in emphasis from an inpatient to outpatient hospital and office-based medical/surgical environment, there has been increased interest in the ‘big little problem’ of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). Currently, the overall incidence of PONV is estimated to be 25 to 30%, with severe, intractable PONV estimated to occur in approximately 0.18% of all patients undergoing surgery. PONV can lead to delayed postanaesthesia care unit (PACU) recovery room discharge and unanticipated hospital admission, thereby increasing medical costs.

The aetiology and consequences of PONV are complex and multifactorial, with patient-, medical- and surgery-related factors. A thorough understanding of these factors, as well as the neuropharmacology of multiple emetic receptors [dopaminergic, muscarinic, cholinergic, opioid, histamine, serotonin (5-hydroxy-tryptamine; 5-HT)] and physiology [cranial nerves VIII (acoustic-vestibular), IX (glossopharyngeal) and X (vagus), gastrointestinal reflex] relating to PONV are necessary to most effectively manage PONV. Commonly used older, traditional antiemetics for PONV include the anticholinergics (scopolamine), phenothiazines (promethazine), antihistamines (diphenhydramine), butyrophenones (droperidol) and benzamides (metoclopramide). These antiemetics have adverse effects such as dry mouth, sedation, hypotension, extrapyramidal symptoms, dystonic effects and restlessness.

The newest class of antiemetics used for the prevention and treatment of PONV are the serotonin receptor antagonists (ondansetron, granisetron, tropisetron, dolasetron). These antiemetics do not have the adverse effects of the older, traditional antiemetics. Headache and dizziness are the main adverse effects of the serotonin receptor antagonists in the dosages used for PONV.

The serotonin receptor antagonists have improved antiemetic effectiveness but are not as completely efficacious for PONV as they are for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Older, traditional antiemetics (such as droperidol) compare favourably with the serotonin receptor antagonists regarding efficacy for PONV prevention. Combination antiemetic therapy improves efficacy for PONV prevention and treatment.

In the difficult-to-treat PONV patient (as in the chemotherapy patient), suppression of numerous emetogenic peripheral stimuli and central neuroemetic receptors may be necessary. This multimodal PONV management approach includes use of: (i) multiple different antiemetic medications (double or triple combination antiemetic therapy acting at different neuroreceptor sites); (ii) less emetogenic anaesthesia techniques; (iii) adequate intravenous hydration; and (iv) adequate pain control.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Table I
Table II
Table III
Fig. 2
Table IV
Table V
Fig. 3
Table VI
Table VII

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Kapur PA. The big ‘little problem’ [editorial]. Anesth Analg 1991; 73: 243–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Watcha MF, White PF. Postoperative nausea and vomiting: its etiology, treatment and prevention. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 162–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Cohen MM, Cameron CB, Duncan PG. Pediatric anesthesia morbidity and mortality in the perioperative period. Anesth Analg 1990; 70: 160–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Gold BS, Kitz DS, Lecky JH, et al. Unanticipated admission to the hospital following ambulatory surgery. JAMA 1989; 262: 3003–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Borison HL, Wang SC. Physiology and pharmacology of vomiting. Pharm Rev 1953; 5: 192–230

    Google Scholar 

  6. Wang SC, Borison HL. The vomiting center: a critical experimental analysis. Arch Neuro Psych 1950; 63: 928–41

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Andrews PLR, Davis CJ, Binham S, et al. The abdominal visceral innervation and the emetic reflex: pathways, pharmacology and plasticity. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1990; 668: 325–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Borison HL, McCarthy LE. Neuropharmacology of chemotherapy-induced emesis. Drugs 1983; 25 Suppl. 1: 8–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Borison HL. Area postrema: chemoreceptor circumventricular organ of the medulla oblongata. Prog Neurobiol 1989; 32: 351–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Stefanini E, Clement-Cormier Y. Detection of receptors in the area postrema. Eur J Pharmacol 1981; 74: 257–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Wamsley JK, Lewis MS, Young WS, et al. Autoradiographic localization of muscarinic cholinergic receptors in rat brain-stem. J Neurosci 1981; 1: 176–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Atweh SF, Kuhar MJ. Autoradiographic localization of opiate receptors in the rat brain. II: the brain stem. Brain Res 1977; 129: 1–12

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Palacios JM, Wamsley JK, Kuhar MJ. The distribution of histamine H1-receptors in the rat brain: an autoradiographic study. Neuroscience 1981; 6: 15–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Waeber C, Dixon K, Hoyer D, et al. Localisation by autoradiography of neuronal 5-HT3 receptors in the mouse. Eur J Pharmacol 1988; 151: 351–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Brindle GF, Soliman MG. Anaesthetic complications in surgical out-patients. Can Anaesth Soc J 1975; 22(5): 613–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Palazzo MGA, Strunin L. Anaesthesia and emesis. I: etiology. Can Anaesth Soc J 1984; 31: 178–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Patel RI, Hanallah RS. Anesthetic complications following pediatric ambulatory surgery: a 3-year study. Anesthesiology 1988; 69: 1009–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Larsson S, Jonmarker C. Postoperative emesis after pediatric strabismus surgery: the effect of dixyrazine compared to droperidol. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1990; 34: 227–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Dent SJ, Ramachandra V, Stephen CR. Postoperative vomiting: incidence, analysis, and therapeutic measures in 3,000 patients. Anesthesiology 1955; 16: 564–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Honkavaara P. Effect of transdermal hyoscine on nausea and vomiting during and after middle-ear surgery under local anesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76: 749–50

    Google Scholar 

  21. Philip BK. Etiologies of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Pharmacy Ther 1997; 22 (7 Suppl.): 18–25S

    Google Scholar 

  22. Haigh CG, Kaplan LA, Durham JA. Nausea and vomiting after gynecological surgery: a meta-analysis of factors affecting their incidence. Br J Anaesth 1993; 71: 512–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Bellville J. Postanesthetic nausea and vomiting. Anesthesiology 1961; 22(5): 773–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Bellville JW, Bross IDJ, Howland WS. Postoperative nausea and vomiting IV: factors related to postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesthesiology 1960; 21(2): 186–93

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Cohen MM, Duncan PG, DeBoer DP, et al. The postoperative interview: assessing risk factors for nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1994; 78: 7–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Koivuranta M, Laara E, Snare L, et al. A survey of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 443–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Anderson R, Krohg K. Pain as a major cause of postoperative nausea. Can Anaesth Soc J 1976; 23: 366–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Jenkins JC, Lahay D. Central mechanisms of vomiting related to catecholamine response: anaesthetic implication. Can Anaesth Soc J 1971; 18: 434–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Rees MR, Clark RA, Holdsworth CD. The effect of beta adrenoreceptor agonists and antagonists on gastric emptying in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1980; 10: 551–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Beattie WS, Lindblad T, Buckley DN, et al. The incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting in women undergoing laparoscopy is influenced by the day of menstrual cycle. Can J Anaesth 1991; 38(3): 298–302

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Honkavaara P, Lehtinen AM, Hovorka J, et al. Nausea and vomiting after gynaecological laparoscopy depends upon the phase of the menstrual cycle. Can J Anaesth 1991; 38: 876–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Gratz I, Allen E, Afshar M, et al. The effects of the menstrual cycle on the incidence of emesis and efficacy of ondansetron. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 656–9

    Google Scholar 

  33. Purkis IE. Factors that influence postoperative vomiting. Can Anaesth Soc J 1974; 11: 335–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Rowley MP, Brown TCK. Postoperative vomiting in children. Anaesth Intensive Care 1982; 10(4): 309–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Lerman J. Surgical and patient factors involved in postoperative nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1992; 69 Suppl. 1: 24S–32S

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Smessaert A, Schehr CA, Artusio Jr JF. Nausea and vomiting in the immediate postanesthetic period. JAMA 1959; 170: 2072–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Vance JP, Neill RS, Norris W. The incidence and aetiology of postoperative nausea and vomiting in a plastic surgical unit. Br J Plast Surg 1973; 26: 336–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Read NW, Houghton LA. Physiology of gastric emptying and the pathophysiology of gastroparesis. Gastroenterol Clin N Am 1989; 18: 359–73

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Clarke RSJ. Nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1984; 56:19–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Dundee JW, Kirwan MK, Clarke RSJ. Anaesthesia and premedication as factors in postoperative vomiting. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1965; 9: 223–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Dundee JW, Moore J, Nicholl RM. Studies of drugs given before anaesthesia II: a method for the assessment of their influence on the course of anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1962; 34: 523–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Novoa RR. The anti-emetic action of fluothane: a comparative study in obstetrical anaesthesia. Can Anaes Soc J 1960; 7(2): 109–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Lonie DS, Harper NJN. Nitrous oxide and vomiting: the effect of nitrous oxide on the incidence of vomiting following gynecological laparoscopy. Anaesthesia 1986; 141: 703–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Pandit UA, Malviya S, Lewis IH. Vomiting after outpatient tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children: the role of nitrous oxide. Anesth Analg 1995; 80: 230–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Melnick BM, Johnson LS. Effect of eliminating nitrous oxide in outpatient anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 982–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Felts JA, Poler SM, Spitznagel EL. Nitrous oxide, nausea, and vomiting after outpatient gynecologic surgery. J Clin Anesth 1990; 2: 168–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Rising S, Dodgson MS, Steen PA. Isoflurance vs fentanyl for outpatient laparoscopy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1985; 29: 251–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Eger EI.Anesthesia uptake and action. Baltimore (MD): Williams and Wilkins, 1981:171–7

  49. Eger EI. Nitrous oxide/N2O. New York (NY): Elsevier, 1985: 93-100

  50. Hovorka J, Kortilla K. Nitrous oxide does not increase nausea and vomiting following gynaecological laparoscopy. Can J Anaesth 1989; 36(2): 145–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Kortilla K, Hovorka J, Erkola O. Nitrous oxide dose not increase the incidence of nausea and vomiting after isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1987; 66: 761–5

    Google Scholar 

  52. Hartung J. Twenty-four of twenty-seven studies show a greater incidence of emesis associated with nitrous oxide than with alternative antiemetics. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 114–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. King JH, Milakiewicz R, Carli F, et al. Influence of neostigmine on postoperative vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61: 403–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Salmenperä M, Kuoppamäki R, Salmenperä A. Do anticholinergic agents affect the occurrence of postanesthetic nausea? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1992; 36: 445–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Salem MR, Wong AY, Fizzotti GF. Efficacy of cricoid pressure in preventing aspiration of gastric contents in paediatric patients. Br J Anaesth 1972; 44: 401–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. ASA Task Force on Preoperative Fasting. Practice guidelines for preoperative fasting and the use of pharmacologic agents to reduce the risk of pulmonary aspiration: application to healthy patients undergoing elective procedures. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 896–905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Thompson DP, Ashley FL. Face-lift complications: a study of 922 cases performed in a 6-year period. Plast Reconstr Surg 1978; 61: 40–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Stein JM. Factors affecting nausea and vomiting in the plastic surgery patient. Plast Reconstr Surg 1982; 70: 505–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Hovorka J, Korttila K, Erkola O. Gastric aspiration at the end of anaesthesia does not decrease postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesth Intensive Care 1990; 18: 58–61

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. McCarroll SM, Mori S, Bras P, et al. The effect of gastric intubation and removal of gastric contents on the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting [abstract]. Anaesth Analg 1990; 70: S262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Hovorka J, Korttila K, Erkola O. The experience of the person ventilating the lungs does influence postoperative nausea and vomiting. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1990; 34: 203–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Crocker JS, Vandam LD. Concerning nausea and vomiting during spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1959; 20: 587–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Green NM. Physiology of spinal anesthesia. 3rd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams and Wilkins, 1981: 258–60

    Google Scholar 

  64. Suntheralingham Y, Buvanendran A, Cheng DCH, et al. A prospective randomized double-blinded study of the effect of intravenous fluid therapy on adverse outcomes on outpatient surgery. Anesth Analg 1995; 80: 682–6

    Google Scholar 

  65. Davidson GM. Intraoperative fluid and electrolyte requirements. Anaesth Intensive Care 1977; 5: 333–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Adriani J, Summers FW, Antony SO. Is the prophylactic use of antiemetics in surgical patients justified? JAMA 1961; 175(8): 666–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Toner CC, Broomhead CJ, Littlejohn IH, et al. Prediction of postoperative nausea and vomiting using a logistic regression model. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76: 347–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Apfel C, Laara E, Koivuranta M, et al. A simplified risk score for predicting postanesthetic nausea and vomiting. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 693–700

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Omoigui S. The anesthesia drugs handbook. St Louis (MO): Mosby, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  70. Donnelly A, Cunningham F, Baughman V. Anesthesiology and critical care drug handbook. Cleveland (OH): Lexi-Comp Inc., 1998

    Google Scholar 

  71. Bitetti JM, Weintraub HD. Nausea and vomiting. In: Benumof J, Saidman L, editors. Anesthesia and perioperative complications. St Louis (MO): Mosby-Yearbook Inc., 1992: 407

    Google Scholar 

  72. Kovac AL. Safety and efficacy of 5-HT3 receptor antagonist in PONV. Pharmacy Ther 1997; 22: 26S–36S

    Google Scholar 

  73. McCarthy BG, Peroutka SJ. Differentiation of the muscarinic cholinergic receptor subtypes in human cortex and pons: implications for anti-motion sickness therapy. Aviat Space Environ Med 1988; 49: 63–6

    Google Scholar 

  74. Golding JF, Scott JR. Comparison of the effects of a selective muscarinic receptor antagonist and hyoscine (scopolamine) on motion sickness, skin conductance and heart rate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 43: 633–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Tigerstedt I, Salmela L, Aromaa U. Double-blind comparison of transdermal scopolamine, droperidol and placebo against postoperative nausea and vomiting. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1988; 32: 454–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Koski EMJ, Mattila MAK, Knapik D, et al. Double-blind comparison of transdermal hyoscine and placebo for the prevention of postoperative nausea. Br J Anaesth 1990; 64: 16–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Loper KA, Ready LB, Dorman BH. Prophylactic transdermal scopolamine patches reduce nausea in postoperative patients receiving epidural morphine. Anesth Analg 1989; 68: 144–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kotelko DM, Rottman RL, Wright WC, et al. Transdermal scopolamine decreases nausea and vomiting following cesarean section in patients receiving epidural morphine. Anesthesiology 1989; 71: 675–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Clissold SP, Heel RC. Transdermal hyoscine (scopolamine): a preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 1985; 29: 189–207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Wood C. Antimotion sickness and antiemetic drugs. Drugs 1979; 17:471–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Howat DDC. Anti-emetic drugs in anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1960; 15(3): 289–97

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Dundee JW, Moore J, Love WJ, et al. Studies of drugs given before anaesthesia. VI: the phenothiazine derivatives. Br J Anaesth 1965; 37: 332–52

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Dillon GP. Clinical evaluation of promethazine for prevention of postoperative vomiting. Am Pract Digest Treatment 1957; 8(10): 1571–5

    Google Scholar 

  84. Dundee JW, Assaf RAE, Loan WB, et al. A comparison of the efficacy of cyclizine and perphenazine in reducing the emetic effects of morphine and pethidine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1975; 2:81–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Splinter WM, Roberts DJ. Perphenazine decreases vomiting by children after tonsillectomy. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44: 1308–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Splinter WM, Roberts DJ. Prophylaxis for vomiting by children after tonsillectomy: dexamethasone versus perphenazine. Anesth Analg 1997; 85: 534–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Splinter WM, Rhine EJ. Prophylaxis for vomiting by children after tonsillectomy: ondansetron compared with perphenazine. Br J Anaesth 1998; 80: 155–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Van den Berg AA. A comparison of ondansetron and prochlorperazine for the prevention of nausea and vomiting after tympanoplasty. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43(9): 939–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Robbins EL, Nagel JD. Haloperidol parenterally for treatment of vomiting and nausea from gastrointestinal disorders in a group of geriatric patients: double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1975; 23: 38–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Ross WT, Franz JA. Prevention of post-operative nausea and vomiting by haloperidol or droperidol [abstract]. Anaesth Analg 1990; 70: S335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Tornetta FJ. Double-blind evaluation of haloperidol for antiemetic activity. Anesth Analg 1972; 51(6): 964–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Barton MD, Libonati M, Cohen PJ. The use of haloperidol for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Anesthesiology 1975; 42:508–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Loeser EA, Bennett G, Stanley TH, et al. Comparison of droperidol, haloperidol and prochlorperazine as postoperative antiemetics. Can Anaesth Soc J 1979; 26(2): 125–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Lehmann KA, Van Peer A, Ikonomakis M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of droperidol in surgical patients under different conditions of anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61: 297–301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Madej TH, Simpson KH. Comparison of the use of domperidone, droperidol and metoclopramide in the prevention of nausea and vomiting following gynaecological surgery in day cases. Br J Anesth 1986; 58: 879–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Madej TH, Simpson KH. Comparison of the use of domperidone, droperidol and metoclopramide in the prevention of nausea and vomiting following major gynaecological surgery. Br J Anaesth 1986; 58: 884–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Kauste A, Tuominen M, Heikkinen H, et al. Droperidol, alizapride and metoclopramide in the prevention and treatment of postoperative emetic sequelae. Eur J Anaesth 1986; 3: 1–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Rita L, Goodarzi M, Seleny F. Effect of low dose droperidol on postoperative vomiting in children. Can Anaesth Soc J 1981; 28(3): 259–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Wetchler BV, Collins IS, Jacob L. Antiemetic effects of droperidol on the ambulatory surgery patient. Anesthesiology Review 1982; 9(5): 23–6

    Google Scholar 

  100. Morrison JD, Clarke RSJ, Dundee JW. Studies of drugs given before anaesthesia. XXI: droperidol. Br J Anaesth 1970; 42(8): 730–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Santos A, Datta S. Prophylactic use of droperidol for control of nausea and vomiting during spinal anesthesia for cesarean section. Anesth Analg 1984; 63: 85–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Melnick B, Sawyer R, Karambelkar D, et al. Delayed side effects of droperidol after ambulatory general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1989; 9: 748–51

    Google Scholar 

  103. Abramowitz MD, Oh TH, Epstein BS, et al. The antiemetic effect of droperidol following outpatient strabismus surgery in children. Anesthesiology 1983; 59: 579–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Mortensen PT. Droperidol (dehydrobenzperidol): postoperative antiemetic effect when given intravenously to gynaecological patients. Acta Anaesth Scand 1982; 26: 48–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Korttila K, Kauste A, Tuominen M, et al. Droperidol prevents and treats nausea and vomiting after enflurane anaesthesia. Euro J Anaesth 1985; 2: 379–85

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Harrington RA, Hamilton CW, Brogden RM, et al. Metoclopramide: an updated review of its pharmacological properties and clinical use. Drugs 1983; 25: 451–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Assaf RA, Clarke RS, Dundee JW, et al. Studies of drugs given before anesthesia. XXIV: metoclopramide with morphine and pethidine. Br J Anaesth 1974; 46(7): 514–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Bateman DN, Davies DS. Pharmacokinetics of metoclopramide [letter]. Lancet 1979; I(8108): 166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. LaCroix G, Lessard MR, Trepanier CA. Treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting: comparison of propofol, droperidol and metoclopramide. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43: 115–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Chestnut DH, Owen CL, Geiger M, et al. Metoclopramide versus droperidol for prevention of nausea and vomiting during epidural anesthesia for cesarean section. South Med J 1989; 82(10): 1224–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Chestnut DH, Vandewalker GE, Owen CL, et al. Administration of metoclopramide for prevention of nausea and vomiting during epidural anesthesia for elective cesarean section. Anesthesiology 1987; 66(4): 563–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Champion MC, Hartnett M, Yen M. Domperidone, a new dopamine antagonist. CMAJ 1986; 135: 457–61

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Cooke RD, Comyn DJ, Ball RW. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting by domperidone; a double-blind randomized study using domperidone, metoclopramide and a placebo. S Afr Med J 1979; 17: 827–9

    Google Scholar 

  114. Boghaert A, Carron D, Gallant J, et al. Postoperative vomiting treated with domperidone: a double-blind comparison with metoclopramide and a placebo. Acta Anesthesiol Belg 1980; 31(2): 129–37

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Pitts NE. A clinical pharmacological evaluation of benzquinamide, a new antiemetic agent. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1969; 11:325–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Lutz H, Immich H. Antiemetic effect of benzquinamide in postoperative vomiting. Curr Ther Res 1972; 14(4): 178–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Moertel CG, Schutt AJ, Hahn RG, et al. Oral benzquinamide in the treatment of nausea and vomiting. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975; 18: 554–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Larrauri RM. Benzquinamide parenteral for the treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1969; 11: 118–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Smith DJ, Rushin JM, Urquilla PR, et al. Cardiovascular effects of benzquinamide. Anesth Analg 1979; 48: 189–94

    Google Scholar 

  120. Bellville JW, Howland WS, Bross IDJ. Postoperative nausea and vomiting. III: evaluation of the antiemetic drugs fluphenazine (prolixin) and promethazine (phenergan) and comparison with triflupromazine (vesprin) and cyclizine (marezine). JAMA 1960; 172: 1488–93

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. McKenzie R, Wadhwa RK, Lim Uy NT, et al. Antiemetic effectiveness of intramuscular hydroxyzine compared with intramuscular droperidol. Anesth Analg 1981; 60(11): 783–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Giacalone VF. Antianxiety/sedative drugs: the benzodiazepines. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 1992; 9: 465–79

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. DiFlorio T. The use of midazolam for persistent postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Intensive Care 1992; 20: 383–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Splinter WM, MacNeill HB, Menard EA. Midazolam reduces vomiting after tonsillectomy in children. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42: 201–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Khalil SN, Berry JM, Howard G, et al. The antiemetic effect of lorazepam after outpatient strabismus surgery in children. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 915–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Rothenberg DM, Parnass SM, Litwack K, et al. Efficacy of ephedrine in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1991; 72: 58–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Naguib K, Osman HA, Al-Khayat HL, et al. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting following laparoscopic surgery: ephedrine vs propofol. Middle East J Anaesthesiol 1998; 14(4): 219–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Myles PS, Hendrata M, Bennett AM, et al. Postoperative nausea and vomiting. Propofol or thiopentone: does choice of induction agent affect outcome? Anaesth Intensive Care 1996; 24(3): 355–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Hamunen K, Vaalamo MO, Maunuksela EL. Does propofol reduce vomiting after strabismus surgery in children? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997; 41(8): 973–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Borgeat A. Subhypnotic doses of propofol do not possess anti-dopaminergic properties. Anesth Analg 1997; 84(1): 196–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Gan TJ, Ginsberg B, Grant AP, et al. Double-blind, randomized comparison of ondansetron and intraoperative propofol to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesthesiology 1996; 85(5): 1036–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Honkavaara P, Saarnivaara L. Comparison of subhypnotic doses of thiopentone vs propofol on the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting following middle ear surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998; 42(2): 211–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Song D, Whitten CW, White PF, et al. Antiemetic activity of propofol after sevoflurane and desflurane anesthesia for outpatient laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 838–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Ewalenko P, Janny S, Dejonckheere M, et al. Antiemetic effect of subhypnotic doses of propofol after thyroidectomy. Br J Anaesth 1996; 77(4): 643–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. Gan TJ, Glass PS, Howell ST, et al. Determination of plasma concentrations of propofol associated with 50% reduction in postoperative nausea. Anesthesiology 1997; 87(4): 779–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Scuderi PE, D’Angelo R, Harris L, et al. Small-dose propofol by continuous infusion does not prevent postoperative vomiting in females undergoing outpatient laparoscopy. Anesth Analg 1997; 84(1): 71–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Asboe V, Raeder JC, Groegaard B. Betamethasone reduces postoperative pain and nausea after ambulatory surgery. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 319–23

    Google Scholar 

  138. Pappas AL, Sukhani R, Hotaling AJ, et al. The effect of preoperative dexamethasone on the immediate and delayed postoperative morbidity in children undergoing adenotonsillectomy. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 57–61

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Leeser J, Lip H. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting using ondansetron, a new, selective, 5-HT3-receptor antagonist. Anesth Analg 1991; 72: 751–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Kenny GNC, Oates JDL, Lesser J, et al. Efficacy of orally administered ondansetron in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a dose-ranging study. Br J Anaesth 1992; 68: 466–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. McKenzie R, Kovac A, O’Connor T, et al. Comparison of ondansetron versus placebo to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting in women undergoing ambulatory gynecologic surgery. Anesthesiology 1993; 78: 21–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Scuderi P, Wetchler B, Sung YF, et al. Treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient surgery with the 5-HT3-receptor antagonist ondansetron. Anesthesiology 1993; 78: 15–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Kovac A, Pearman M, Khalil S, et al. Ondansetron prevents postoperative emesis in male outpatients. J Clin Anesth 1996; 8: 644–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Rose JB, Brenn BR, Corddry DH, et al. Preoperative oral ondansetron for pediatric tonsillectomy. Anesth Analg 1996; 82: 558–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Khalil S, Rodarte A, Weldon BC, et al. Intravenous ondansetron in established postoperative emesis in children. Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 204–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  146. Sun R, Klein KW, White PF. The effect of timing of ondansetron administration in outpatients undergoing otolaryngologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 331–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Tang J, Wang B, White PF, et al. the effect of timing of ondansetron administration on its efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and cost-benefit as a prophylactic antiemetic in the ambulatory setting. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 274–82

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Kovac A, O’Connor T, Pearman M, et al. Efficacy of repeat intravenous dosing of ondansetron in controlling postoperative nausea and vomiting: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. J Clin Anesth 1999; 11: 453–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Rung GW, Claybon L, Hord A, et al. Intravenous ondansetron for postsurgical opioid-induced nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 832–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Wilson AJ, Diemunsch P, Lindeque BG, et al. Single-dose i.V. granisetron in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76: 515–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Fujii Y, Tanaka H, Toyooka H. Optimal antiemetic dose of granisetron for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting. Can J Anaesth 1994; 51: 794–7

    Google Scholar 

  152. Cieslak GD, Watcha MF, Phillips MB, et al. The dose-response relationship of granisetron for the prophylaxis of pediatric postoperative emesis. Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 1076–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Taylor AM, Rosen M, Diemunsch PA, et al. A double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging, multicenter study of intravenous granisetron in the treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing surgery with general anesthesia. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9(8): 658–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Chan MTV, Chui PT, Ho WS, et al. Single-dose torpisetron for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting after breast surgery. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 931–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Alon E, Kocian R, Nett PC, et al. Tropisetron for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting in women undergoing gynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1996; 82: 338–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Zomers PJ, Langenberg CJ, de Grajin KM. Tropisetronforpostoperative nausea and vomiting after gynaecological surgery. Br J Anaesth 1993; 71: 677–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Alon E, Buchser E, Herrera E, et al. Tropisetron for treating established postoperative nausea and vomiting: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 617–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Balfour JA, Goa KL. Dolasetron: a review of its pharmacology and efficacy in the management of nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy, radiotherapy or surgery. Drugs 1997; 54: 273–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Gracyzk SG, McKenzie R, Kaller S, et al. Intravenous dolasetron for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient laparoscopic gynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 325–30

    Google Scholar 

  160. Diemunsch P, Leeser J, Feiss P, et al. Intravenous dolasetron mesilate ameliorates postoperative nausea and vomiting. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44: 173–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Kovac AL, Scuderi P, Boerner TF, et al. Treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting with single intravenous doses of dolasetron mesylate: a multicenter trial. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 546–52

    Google Scholar 

  162. Warriner CB, Knox D, Belo S, et al. Prophylactic oral dolasetron mesylate reduces postoperative nausea and vomiting after abdominal hysterectomy. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44: 1167–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Diemunsch P, Korttila K, Leeser J, et al. Oral dolasetron mesylate for prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The Oral Dolasetron PONV Prevention Study Group. J Clin Anesth 1998; 10: 145–52

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Lerman J, Sims C, Sikich N, et al. Pharmacokinetics of the active metabolite (MDL 74, 156) of dolasetron mesylate after oral or intravenous administration to anesthetized children. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 60: 485–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Anzemet (dolasetron mesylate) Summary Product Monograph. Kansas City (MO): Hoechst Marion Roussell, 1997

  166. Kovac A, Mingus M, Sung YF, et al. Reduced resource utilization in patients treated for postoperative nausea and vomiting with dolasetron mesylate. J Clin Anesth 1999; 11: 235–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Kovac AL. Use of serotonin receptor antagonists for postoperative nausea and vomiting: update 1999. Prog Anesthesiol 1999; 13(14): 263–84

    Google Scholar 

  168. Alon E, Himmelseher S. Ondansetron in the treatment of postopertive vomiting: a randomized double-blind comparison with droperidol and metoclopramide. Anesth Analg 1992; 75: 561–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Tang J, Watcha MF, White PF. A comparison of costs and efficacy of ondansetron and droperidol as prophylactic antiemetic therapy for elective outpatient gynecologic procedures. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 304–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Sniadach MS, Alberts MS. A comparison of the prophylactic antiemetic effect of ondansetron and droperidol on patients undergoing gynecologic laparoscopy. Anesth Analg 1997; 85: 797–800

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Fortney JT, Gan TJ, Graczyk S, et al. A comparison of the efficacy, safety and patient satisfaction of ondansetron versus droperidol as antiemetic for elective outpatient surgical procedures. S3A-409 and S3A-410 Study Groups. Anesth Analg 1998; 86(4): 731–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Grond S, Lynch J, Diefenbach C, et al. Comparison of ondansetron and droperidol in the prevention of nausea and vomiting after inpatient minor gynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1995; 81: 603–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Hamid SK, Selby IR, Sikich N, et al. Vomiting after adenotonsillectomy in children: a comparison of ondansetron, dimenhydrimate and placebo. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 469–500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Desilva PH, Darvish AH, McDonald SM, et al. The efficacy of prophylactic ondansetron, droperidol, perphenazine and metoclopramide in the prevention of nausea and vomiting aftermajorgynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1995;81:139–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Korttila K, Clergue F, Leeser J, et al. Intravenous dolasetron and ondansetron in prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997; 41(7): 914–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Naguib M, el Bakry AK, Khoshim MH, et al. Prophylactic antiemetic therapy with ondansetron, tropisetron, granisetron and metoclopramide in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a randomized, double-blind comparison with placebo. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43: 226–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Purhonen S, Kauko M, Koski EMJ, et al. Comparison of tropisetron, droperidol and saline in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after gynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1997; 84: 662–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Fujii Y, Saitoh Y, Tanaka H, et al. Prevention of PONV with granisetron, droperidol or metoclopramide in patietns with postoperative emesis. Can J Anaesth 1998; 45(2): 153–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Fujii Y, Toyooka H, Tanaka H. Prevention of PONV with granisetron, droperidol and metoclopramide in female patients with history of motion sickness. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44: 820–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Fujii Y, Toyooka H, Tanaka H. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting in female patients during menstruation: comparison of droperidol, metoclopramide and granisetron Br J Anaesth 1998; 80(2): 248–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Polati E, Verlato G, Finco G, et al. Ondansetron versus metoclopramide in the treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1997; 85: 395–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Diemunsch P, Conseiller C, Clyti N, et al. Ondansetron compared with metoclopramide in the treatment of established postoperative nausea and vomiting. The French Ondansetron Study Group. Br J Anaesth 1997; 79: 322–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Roberson CR, McLeskey CH, Meyer T, et al. IV dolasetron vs ondansetron for the treatment of PONV in ambulatory surgery patients [abstract]. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: A4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Zarate E, Watcha M, White PF, et al. Comparative cost-effectiveness of dolasetron and ondansetron for prophylaxis of postoperative nausea and vomiting after ambulatory surgery [abstract]. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: A3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. McKenzie R, Tantisira B, Karambelkar DJ, et al. Comparison of ondansetron with ondansetron plus dexamethasone in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1994; 79: 961–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. McKenzie R, Riley TJ, Tantisira B, et al. Effect of propofol for induction and ondansetron with or without dexamethasone for the prevention of nausea and vomiting after major gynecologic surgery. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9: 15–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. McKenzie R, Uy NTL, Riley TJ, Hamilton DL. Droperidol/ ondansetron combination controls nausea and vomiting after tubal banding. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 1218–22

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Fujii Y, Toyooka H, Tanaka H. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting with a combination of granisetron and droperidol. Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 613–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Fujii Y, Tanaka H, Toyooka H. Granisetron-dexamethasone combination reduces postoperative nausea and vomiting. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42: 387–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Fujii Y, Tanaka H, Toyooka H. The effects of dexamethasone on antiemetics in female patients undergoing gynecologic surgery. Anesth Analg 1997; 85(4): 913–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Wrench IJ, Ward JE, Walder AD, et al. The prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting using a combination of ondansetron and droperidol. Anaesthesia 1996; 51(8): 776–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Koivuranta M, Jokela R, Kiviluomak K, et al. The antiemetic efficacy of a combination of ondansetron and droperidol. Anaesthesia 1997; 52(9): 863–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Pueyo FJ, Carrascosa F, Lopez L, et al. Combination of ondansetron and droperidol in the prophylaxis of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 117–22

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Steinbrook RA, Freiberger D, Gosnell JL, et al. Prophylactic antiemetics for laparoscopic cholecystectomy: ondansetron versus droperidol plus metoclopramide. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 1081–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Lopez-Olaondo L, Carrascosa F, Pueyo FJ, et al. Combination of ondansetron and dexamethasone in the prophylaxis of post-operative nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76(6): 835–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Scuderi P, James R, Harris L, et al. Multimodal management eliminates postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) following outpatient laparoscopy [abstract]. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: A6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  197. Dundee JW, Ghaly RG, Bil KM, et al. Effect of stimulation of the P6 antiemetic point on postoperative nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1989; 63(5): 612–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Barsoum G, Perry EP, Fraser IA. Postoperative nausea is relieved by acupressure. J R Soc Med 1990; 83(2): 86–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Gieron C, Wieland B, Van-der-Laage D, et al. Acupressure in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesthetist 1993; 42(4): 221–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Fan CF, Tanhui E, Joshi S, et al. Acupressure treatment for prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg 1997; 84(4): 821–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Ghaly RG, Fitzpatrick KTJ, Dundee JW. Antiemetic studies with traditional Chinese acupuncture. A comparison of manual needling with electrical stimulation and commonly used antiemetics. Anaesthesia 1987; 42(10): 1108–10

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Zarate E, Mingus M, White P, et al. Transcutaneous acupoint electrical stimulation for prevention of nausea and vomiting after laparoscopic surgery [abstract]. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: A486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  203. Dershwitz M, DiBiase PM, Roscow CE, et al. Ondansetron does not affect alfentanil-induced ventilatory depression or sedation. Anesthesiology 1992; 77(1): 447–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Benedict CR, Arbogast R, Martin L, et al. Single-blind study of the effects of intravenous dolasetron mesylate versus ondansetron on electrocardiographic parameters in normal volunteers. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1996; 28: 53–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Sanchez LA, Hirsch JD, Carroll NV, et al. Estimation of the costs of postoperative nausea and vomiting in an ambulatory surgery center. J Res Pharm Econ 1995; 6: 35–44

    Google Scholar 

  206. Roila F, Ballatori E, Tonato M, et al. 5-HT3 receptor antagonists: differences and similarities. Eur J Cancer 1997; 33: 1364–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anaesfhesiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, Kansas, 66160-7415, USA

    Anthony L. Kovac

Authors
  1. Anthony L. Kovac
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anthony L. Kovac.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kovac, A.L. Prevention and Treatment of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting. Drugs 59, 213–243 (2000). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200059020-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200059020-00005

Keywords

Search

Navigation