Abstract
Exposure to traffic-related air pollutants, which has been associated with a range of adverse health effects, often is represented using indirect proxies or surrogate exposure measures, most commonly, the proximity to busy roads. This study examines the proximity of grade K-12 schools to high traffic roads in Wayne County, Michigan, an area including the industrialized city of Detroit as well as outlying urban and suburban communities. Unlike earlier studies, commercial and non-commercial traffic is distinguished, and effects of school type (public, charter, private), socio-economic variables, demographic factors, and mapping errors are evaluated. We find that total traffic flow, as measured by annual average daily traffic (AADT), does not reflect the substantial differences between trucking and commuting routes. Thus, AADT alone may inadequately capture traffic-related exposures, especially given the large differences between diesel and gasoline emissions. Based on close proximity (school–road distance ≤150 m) to heavy traffic (AADT≥50,000), 4.9% of the 845 Wayne County schools are traffic exposed at school. In the urban core area, 7.2% of schools and 7.6% of students are traffic exposed at school. A larger proportion of grade 7–12 students in public schools are exposed than K-6 students. Considering truck emissions, 2.8% of the schools are within 150 m of roads with 5000 or more trucks per day. In Wayne County, students attending schools near high traffic roads are more likely to be Black or Hispanic, to be enrolled in a meal program, and to reside in a poor area. Many of these results are driven by the large minority population in the densely populated core area of Detroit. The findings show that a large fraction of children have high exposures to traffic-related pollutants, especially in Detroit, and the need for exposure measures that account for both the composition and volume of traffic.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 6 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $43.17 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen J.O., Mayo P.R., Hughes L.S., and Salmon L.G.G.R. Emissions of size-segregated aerosols from on-road vehicles in the Caldecott Tunnel. Environ Sci Tech 2001: 35: 4189–4197.
Batterman S., Peng C.-Y., and Braun J. Levels and composition of volatile organic compounds on commuting routes in Detroit, Michigan. Atmos Environ 2002: 36: 6015–6030.
Brauer M., Hoek G., van Vliet P., Meliefste K., Fischer P., Gehring U., Heinrich J., Cyrys J., Bellander T., and Lewne M., et al. Estimating long-term average particulate air pollution concentrations: application of traffic indicators and geographic information systems. Epid 2003: 14: 228–239.
Braun-Fahrlander C., Ackermann-Liebrich U., Schwartz J., Gnehm H.P., Rutishauser M., and Wanner H.U. Air pollution and respiratory symptoms in preschool children. Am Rev Resp Dis 1992: 145: 42–47.
Briggs D., Collins S, and Elliott P., et al. Mapping urban air pollution using GIS: a regression-based approach. Int J Geogr Inform Sci 1997: 11: 699–718.
Briggs D.H., de Hoogh C., and Guilliver J., et al. A regression-based method for mapping traffic-related air pollution: application and testing in four contrasting urban environments. Sci Total Environ 2000: 253: 151–167.
Brunekreef B., Janssen N., de Hartog J., Harssema H., Knape M., and van Vliet P. Air pollution from truck traffic and lung function in children living near motorways. Epid 1997: 8: 298–303.
California Senate. Bill number SB 352, Chapter 668, An act to amend Section 17213 of the Education Code, and to amend Section 21151.8 of the Public Resources Code, relating to public schools, Secretary of State, October 3, 2003 Accessed at http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/03-04/bill/sen/sb_0351-0400/sb_352_bill_20031003_chaptered.html, August 2 2005.
Ciccone G., Forastiere F., Agabiti N., Biggeri A., Bisanti L., Chellini E., Corbo G., Dell’Orco V., Dalmasso P., and Volante T.F., et al. Road traffic and adverse respiratory effects in children: SIDRIA Collaborative Group. Occup Environ Med 1998: 55: 771–778.
Delfino R.J. Epidemiological evidence for asthma and exposure to air toxics: Linkages between occupational, indoor, and community air pollution research. Environ Health Persp 2002: 110(Suppl. 4): 573–589.
Dockery D.W., Speizer F.E., Stram D.O., Ware J.H., Spengler J.D., and Ferris B.G. Jr . Effects of inhalable particles on respiratory health of children. Am Rev Resp Dis 1989: 139: 587–594.
Duhme H., Weiland S.K., and Keil U., et al. The association between self-reported symptoms of asthma and allergic rhinitis and self-reported traffic density on street of residence in adolescents. Epid 1996: 7: 578–582.
Edwards J., Waters S., and Griffits R.K. Hospital admissions for asthma in preschool children: relationship to major roads in Birmingham, UK. Arch Environ Health 1994: 49: 223–227.
English P, Neutra R., Scalf R., Sullivan M., Waller L., and Zhu L. Examining associations between childhood asthma and traffic flow using a geographic information system. Environ Health Persp 1999: 107(9): 761–767.
Finkelstein M.M., Jerrett M., and Sears M.R. Traffic air pollution and mortality advancement periods. Am J Epid 2004: 160(2): 173–177.
Friedman M.S., Powell K.E., Hutwagner L., Graham L.M., and Teague W.G. Impact of changes in transportation and commuting behaviors during the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on air quality and childhood asthma. JAMA 2001: 285: 897–905.
Gehring U., Cyrys J., Sedlmeir G., Brunekreef B., Bellander T., Fischer P., Bauer C.P., Reinhardt D., Wichmann H.E., and Heinrich J. Traffic-related air pollution and respiratory health during the first 2 years of life. Eur Resp J 2002: 19: 690–698.
Green R.S., Smorodinsky S., Kim J.J., McLaughlin R., and Ostro B. Proximity of California public schools to busy roads. Environ Health Persp 2004: 112: 61–66.
Green R.S. Personal communication. August 2, 2005.
Gulliver J., and Briggs D.J. Personal exposure to particulate air pollution in transport microenvironments. Atmos Environ 2004: 38: 1–8.
Gunier R.B., Hertz A., von Behren J., and Reynolds P. Traffic density in California: socioeconomic and ethnic differences among potentially exposed children. J Expos Anal Environ Epid 2003: 13: 240–246.
Hirsch T., Weiland S.K., and von Mutius E., et al. Inner city air pollution and respiratory health and atopy in children. Eur Resp J 1999: 14: 669–677.
Hitchins J., Morawska L., Wolff R., and Gilbert D. Concentrations of submicrometre particles from vehicle emissions near a major road. Atmos Environ 2000: 34: 51–59.
Hoek G., Brunekreef B., Goldbohm S., Fischer P., and van den Brant P. Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. Lancet 2002: 360: 1203–1209.
Huang Y.-L., and Batterman S. Residence location as a measure of environmental exposure: a review of air pollution epidemiology studies. Sci Total Environ 2000: 10(1): 66–85.
Janssen N.A., Brunkreef B., van Vliet P., Aarts F., Melliefste K., Harssema H., and Fischer P. The relationship between air pollution from heavy traffic and allergic sensitization, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and respiratory symptoms in Dutch schoolchildren. Environ Health Persp 2003: 111: 1512–1518.
Jones S.G., Fisher B.E.A., Gonzalez-Flexca N., and Sokhi R. The use of measurement programmes and models to assess concentrations next to major roads in urban areas. Environ Monit Assess 2000: 64: 531–547.
Kim E., Hopke P.K., and Edgerton E.S. Improving source identification of Atlanta aerosol using temperature-resolved carbon fractions in positive matrix factorization. Atmos Environ 2004b: 38: 3349–3362.
Kim E., and Hopke P.K. Source apportionment of fine particles in Washington, DC utilizing temperature-resolved carbon fractions. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 2004: 54: 773–785.
Kim J.J., Smorodinsky S., Lipsett M., Singer B.C., Hodgson A.T., and Ostro B. Traffic-related air pollution near busy roads. Am J Critical Care Med 2004a: 170: S20–S26.
Kingham S., Briggs D., Elliott P., Fischer P., and Lebret E. Spatial variation in the concentrations of traffic-related pollutants in indoor and outdoor air in Huddersfield, England. Atmos Environ 2000: 34: 905–916.
Kinney P.L., Aggarwal M., Northridge M.E., Janssen N.A., and Shepard P. Airborne concentrations of PM(2.5) and diesel exhaust particles on Harlem sidewalks: a community-based pilot study. Environ Health Persp 2000: 108: 213–218.
Kitchstetter T.W., Harley R.A., Kreisberg N.M., Stolzenburg N.M., and Hering S.V. On road measurements of fine particle and nitrogen oxide emissions from light- and heavy-duty motor vehicles. Atmos Environ 1999: 33: 2955–2968.
Korenstein S., and Piazza B. An exposure assessment of PM(10) from a major highway interchange: Are children in nearby schools at risk? J Environ Health 2002: 65: 2.
Kunzli N., Kaiser R., and Medina S., et al. Public Health Impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: a European assessment. Lancet 2000: 356: 795–801.
Lena T.S., Ochieng V., and Carter M.C., et al. Elemental carbon and PM2.5 levels in an urban community heavily impacted by truck traffic. Environ Health Persp 2002: 110: 1009–1015.
Levy J.I., Houseman A., Spengler J.D., Loh P., and Ryan L Fine particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration patterns in Roxbury, Massachusetts: A community-based GIS study. Environ Health Persp 2001: 109(4): 341–347.
Lwebuga-Mukasa J.S., Ayirookuzhi S.J., and Hyland A. Traffic volumes and respiratory health care utilization among residents in close proximity to the Peace Bridge before and after September 11, 2001. J Asthma 2003: 40: 855–864.
Mazzoleni C., Kuhns H.D., Moosmuller H., Keislar R.E., Barber P.W., Robinson N.F., Watson J.G., and Nikolic D. On-road vehicle particulate matter and gaseous emission distributions in Las Vegas, Nevada, compared with other areas. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 2004: 54: 711–726.
Monn C. Exposure assessment of air pollutants: a review on spatial heterogeneity and indoor/outdoor/personal exposure to suspended particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. Atmos Environ 2001: 35: 1.
Nakai S., Nitta H., and Maeda K. Respiratory health associated with exposure to automobile exhaust. III: results of a cross-sectional study in 1987, and repeated pulmonary function tests from 1987 to 1990. Arch Environ Health 1999: 54: 26–33.
Nitta H., Sato T., Meada K., Aoki S., and Ono M. Respiratory Health Associated with exposure to automobile exhaust. I: results of cross-sectional studies in 1979, 1982, and 1983. Arch Environ Health 1993: 48: 53–58.
Oosterlee A., Drijver M., Letret E., and Brunekreef B. Chronic respiratory symptoms in children and adults living along streets with high traffic density. Occup Environ Med 1996: 53: 241–247.
Perlin S.A., Wong D., and Sexton K. Residential proximity to industrial sources of air pollution: interrelationships among race, poverty, and age. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 2001: 51: 406–421.
Pierson W.R., Gertler A.W., Robinson N.F., Sagebiel J.C., Zielinska B., Bishop G.A., Stedman D.H., Zweidinger R.B., and Ray W.D. Real-world automotive emissions-summary of studies in the fort McHenry and Tuscarora Mountain Tunnels. Atmos Environ 1996: 30: 2233–2256.
Pierson W.R., and Brachaczek W.W. Particulate matter associated with vehicles on the road. Aerosol Sci Tech 1983: 2: 1–40.
Roemer W., Hoek G., and Brunekreef B. Effect of ambient winter air pollution on respiratory health of children with chronic respiratory symptoms. Am Rev Resp Dis 1993: 147: 118–124.
Roorda-Knape M., Janssen N., De Hartog J., van Vliet P., Harssema H., and Brunekreef B. Air pollution from traffic in city districts near major motorways. Atmos Environ 1998: 43(11): 1921–1930.
Rosenbaum A.S., Axelrad D.A., Woodruff T.J., Wei Y.H., Ligocki M.P., and Cohen J.P. National estimates of outdoor air toxics concentrations. J Air Waste Man Assoc 1999: 49(10): 1138–1152.
Schauer J.J., Rogge W.F., Hildemann L.M., Mazurek M.A., and Cass G.R. Source apportionment of airborne particulate matter using organic compounds as tracers. Atmos Environ 1996: 22: 3837–3855.
Schweitzer L., and Valenzuela Jr A. Environmental injustice and transportation: the claims and the evidence. J Planning Lit 2004: 18(4): 383–398.
SEMCOG. Commuting in Southeast Michigan, The Southeast Michigan Council of Governments.. Detroit, MI, June, 2003.
US DOT. Pocket Guide to Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 2000.
US EPA. Latest findings on national air quality: 1997 status and trends, EPA-454/F-98-009, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1998.
US FHWA. Traffic Monitoring Guide, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Policy Information, accessed as http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/tmguideMay 1, 2001.
van Vliet P., Knape M., de Hartog J., Janssen N., Harssema H., and Brunekreef B. Motor vehicle exhaust and chronic respiratory symptoms in children living near freeways. Environ Res 1997: 74: 122–132.
Weiland S.K., Mundt K.A., Rückmann A., and Keil U. Self-reported wheezing and allergic rhinitis in children and traffic density on street of residence. Ann Epid 1994: 4: 243–247.
Wilhelm M., and Ritz B. Residential proximity to traffic and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994 to 1996. Environ Health Persp 2003: 111(2): 207–216.
Wilkinson P., Elliott P., and Grundy C. et al. Case-control study of hospital admission with asthma in children aged 5-14 years: relaxation with road traffic in north-west London. Thorax 1999: 54: 1070–1074.
Wjst M., Reitmeir P., and Dold S., et al. Road traffic and adverse effects on respiratory health in children. Br Med J 1993: 307: 596–600.
Zhu Y., Hinds W.C., Kim S., Shen S., and Sioutas C. Study of ultrafine particles near a major highway with heavy-duty diesel traffic. Atmos Environ 2002: 36: 4323–4335.
Acknowledgements
We appreciate the suggestions and inputs of Hien Le at the University of Michigan, Lawrence Whiteside at MDOT, Shelley Green of the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, and the reviewers.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, YC., Batterman, S. Proximity of schools in Detroit, Michigan to automobile and truck traffic. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 16, 457–470 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500484
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500484
Keywords
This article is cited by
-
Spatial Analysis of Exposure to Traffic-Related Air Pollution in Mexico: Implications for Urban Planning to Improve Public Health
Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy (2022)
-
The association between residential proximity to brownfield sites and high-traffic areas and measures of immunity
Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2020)
-
The Association Between Obesity, Socio-Economic Status, and Neighborhood Environment: A Multi-Level Analysis of Spokane Public Schools
Journal of Community Health (2020)
-
Proximity of US schools to major roadways: a nationwide assessment
Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2014)
-
Indoor air quality in schools
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2014)