Research article
Neighborhood Design and Walking: A Quasi-Experimental Longitudinal Study

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2008.01.019Get rights and content

Background

Few studies have employed longitudinal data to examine associations between the physical environment and walking.

Methods

Using cross-sectional (n=70) and longitudinal (n=32) data (collected 2003–2006), associations of neighborhood design and demographics with walking were examined. Participants were low-income, primarily African-American women in the southeastern U.S. Through a natural experiment, some women relocated to neo-traditional communities (experimental group) and others moved to conventional suburban neighborhoods (control group).

Results

Post-move cross-sectional comparisons indicated that women in neo-traditional neighborhoods did not, on average, walk more than women in suburban neighborhoods. Race and household size were significant predictors of physical activity. Additionally, using longitudinal data, this study controlled for the effects of pre-move walking and demographics. Analyses examined the effects of environmental factors (e.g., density, land-use mix, street-network patterns) on post-move walking. Women who moved to places with fewer culs-de-sac, on average, walked more. Unexpectedly, increases in land-use mix were associated with less walking.

Conclusions

Results suggest that neo-traditional neighborhood features alone (e.g., sidewalks, front porches, small set-back distances) may not be enough to affect walking; however, changes in street patterns may play a role.

Introduction

While rates of inactivity in the U.S. are at epidemic levels across the population,1, 2 African-American women,3, 4 people of low SES,5 and those living in the southeastern U.S. are particularly at risk for inactivity, obesity, and associated health problems.1 Few studies have examined associations between physical environment characteristics and walking among the most at-risk groups.6, 7 To gain a clearer understanding of the impact of neighborhood design on walking, both cross-sectional and longitudinal data were used to address methodologic limitations common in prior research, focusing on a group vulnerable to sedentary lifestyles and the associated health risks.

It has been suggested that physical activity levels might be influenced more effectively by physical environment interventions than by educational campaigns espousing the benefits of exercise.8 “New urbanism” or “neo-traditional” neighborhood design incorporates design features common in neighborhoods constructed in the early 1900s such as front porches, sidewalks, and rear parking, as well as small lots, high density, and mixed land use. Proponents of this urban design trend claim that greater walking is among the likely benefits, and yet evidence is sparse.9, 10

To date, most studies examining connections between neighborhood- design and walking have been limited by (1) the use of cross-sectional data and (2) self-selection into neighborhoods. Cross-sectional studies suggest relationships among variables and lead to causal hypotheses, but they do not establish causal linkages.11, 12 In contrast, longitudinal studies allow for within-subject comparisons whereby individuals serve as their own controls. This reduces threats to internal validity such as individual differences in the propensity to be physically active.

Because people typically choose where they live (i.e., self-selection), it is not possible to determine causal direction. Do people who like to walk choose to live in a walkable neighborhood, or do neighborhoods with pedestrian-oriented features actually promote walking? Because it is seldom possible to conduct a true experiment—randomly assigning people to residences—self-selection is a pervasive challenge.

By taking advantage of a rare natural experiment, this study tackled these methodologic challenges. It examined walking among women, who, through their partnership with a housing program, moved to either (1) a neo-traditional (or new urbanist) community with small lots, modest setback distances, front porches, sidewalks, a central recreation area, and rear automobile parking13, 14, 15 or (2) a conventional suburban neighborhood with large lots, substantial setbacks, long driveways, no sidewalks, and no shared recreation space. Both pre- and post-move data were obtained. Because only one neighborhood was built within each region, participants did not have a choice between neighborhood types. In this way, the research design incorporated quasi-random assignment to neighborhood type and addressed the self-selection challenge.

The following questions were the study’s focus:

  • 1

    Are there differences in weekly walking between women living in neo-traditional neighborhoods and those living in conventional suburbs?

  • 2

    What environmental characteristics predict post-move walking (according to longitudinal data that control for pre-move walking)?

Section snippets

Research Design

This article presents a two-part study of walking. First, a cross-sectional, between-groups comparison was used to examine the difference in post-move walking between women living in neo-traditional neighborhoods and those in the suburban neighborhoods. Second, walking data collected prior to relocation to the new neighborhoods were introduced, and thereby a quasi-experimental, longitudinal (pre-move/post-move) research design was employed. The effects of changes in environmental

Cross-sectional findings: walking in neo-traditional versus suburban neighborhoods

The cross-sectional analyses focused on whether the overall design of the neighborhoods is associated with the walking of residents. A cross-sectional, between-groups comparison of participants’ walking in two different types of neighborhoods (neo-traditional and suburban) was conducted while controlling for the influence of participants’ demographic characteristics.

The 70 women who participated in the cross-sectional study had relocated to new homes in either neo-traditional or suburban

Discussion

The results of the cross-sectional analysis examining differences in walking between the “package” of neo-traditional versus suburban design features indicated that residents of neo-traditional neighborhoods did not walk significantly more than those living in suburban neighborhoods. As with prior research,10 these analyses provided an inconclusive verdict regarding the walking-promoting properties of neo-traditional design.

Demographic variables were significant predictors of walking. Together,

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