Table 2

Summary of findings

Intervention (1st, 2nd, 3rd tiers)SRs (n)SRs (low confidence SRs in parenthesis)Overall findings*
1st tier2nd tier3rd tier
A. Caregiver-oriented interventionsAA. Information and educationAA1. Sustained sensitisation and education campaigns1(34)None (low confidence evidence)
AA2. Short-term sensitisation and education campaigns126 8 9 11 12 35 (36–41Positive and statistically significant
AA3. Public information campaigns3(41–43)None (low confidence evidence)
AB. Incentives and motivationAB1. Material/monetary incentives for caregivers1211 44 45 (36 38 46–52)Mixed effects
AB3. Automated voice messages to caregivers1(53)None (low confidence evidence)
AB4. Written or pictorial messages (SMS, stickers, flyers, etc) to caregivers135 10 54–57 (36 38 39 48 53 58 59)Positive and statistically significant
AB5. Changes to health system user fees1(60)None (low confidence evidence)
B. Health system orientedBA. Education and trainingBA1. Formal health worker training and education311 (38 51)Limited evidence
BB. Planning, implementation, monitoringBB5. Outreach to vulnerable populations (hard to reach, etc)311 (36 43)Limited evidence
BB7. Home visits511 61 (41 62 63)Positive
BC. Supplementary immunisation activitiesBC1. National/subnational immunisation days2(37 62)None (low confidence evidence)
BD. Incentives and motivationBD1. Material/monetary incentives for health workers1(41)None (low confidence evidence)
BD4. Written or pictorial messages to health workers1(46)None (low confidence evidence)
BD5. Pay-for-performance schemes57 64 (46 65 66)Mixed effects
BF. Health system governance, policies and financingBF1. Health system strategic planning711 (43 46 48 67–69)Limited evidence
BF4. Health system financing370 71 (72)Inconclusive
BG. Technology and mHealthBG1. New Health Management Information System (HMIS) /dashboard systems3(39 73 74)None (low confidence evidence)
C. Other community member orientedCA. Other community member orientedCA1. Faith-based outreach/outreach using local leaders1(38)None (low confidence evidence)
D. Community levelDA. Communication and dialogueDA1. Collaborating with whole community175Limited evidence
DA2. Collaborating with selected community groups and networks176Limited evidence
F. Multicomponent1†29 30Positive and statistically significant
  • *In the last column, ‘overall findings’ are summarised from evidence as reported in the systematic reviews, qualitative and quantitative findings, and quantitative findings from review of reviews (RoR). Kindly refer to online supplemental appendix 9 for the expanded version of this table.

  • †Apart from Jain et al,29 30 there were 25 systematic reviews that assessed the effects of more than one intervention that are not part of this table. Of these reviews, the majority (18) were low confidence SRs and the intervention components were heterogenous. We provide a summary of Jain et al29 30 in this table because it is one of the only included SRs that assessed community engagement interventions. Intervention and outcome codes are taken from online supplemental appendix 1.

  • SMS, short message service; SR, systematic review.