Instrument overview: affective domain (motivation)
| Affective domain: motivation | |||||
| Instrument and authors | Tool description: target group, Iitems and scales | Construct(s) assessed | Validation | Overall strengths | Limitations |
| The Exercise Motivations Inventory (EMI-2) and the Exercise Motives and Gains Inventory. Markland and Hardy (1993).30 | Target group is the whole population. The EMI-2 comprises 14 subscales and 56 items. | Motivation to exercise based on Deci and Ryan’s31 (1985) self-determination theory. | The factorial validity and invariance of the factor structure across gender were rigorously tested using confirmatory factor analytic procedures (Markland and Ingledew, 1997).32 | Strong validation results. Assess what people want to gain from PA compared with other measurement. Translated to numerous languages. | EMI-2 is not theory driven. |
| Motivation for Physical Activity Measure (MPAM-R). Ryan, et al (1997).33 | Target group is the general population. The measurement consists of 30 items shared among five motivation subscales: interest/ enjoyment motivation; competence motivation; appearance motivation; fitness motivation and social motivation. | The tool assesses participants’ motivation for sport and exercise activities. | Studies support that the MPAM-R is both valid and reliable measurement (Ryan et al, 1997).33 | The measurement has been shown to predict various behavioural outcomes (eg, attendance‚ persistence or maintained participation‚ and to predict mental health and well-being). Acceptable reliability and validity results. Easy to administrate. | Problems with cross-cultural adaptations. |
| Kerner and Grossmans intention to exercise scale: Four scales that measure the exercise behaviour of individuals. Kerner and Grossman (2001).34 | Target group is the general population. The measurement consists of 4 subscales with 40 items in total: fitness attitude scale (19 items); expectations of others scale (seven items); perceived behavioural control scale (three items) and intention to exercise scale (11 items). | The measurement predicts participation in physical activity and measures the different independent variables from the theory of planned behaviour model (Ajzen, 1985).35 | Studies support that the four scales have content validity and reliability. (Kerner and Grossman, 2001). | Preliminary content validity and good scale reliability. Using theory (Theory of planned behaviour). | Small scale pilot study. Problems with cross-cultural adaptations. |
| Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (BREQ-2). Markland and Tobin (2004).36 | Target group is the general population. The measurement consists of 19 items and 5 subscales: amotivation; 3 types of extrinsic motivation (external regulation; introjected regulation; identified regulation) and intrinsic motivation. | BREQ-2 assesses the level of self-determined motivation for the exercise activity in question. | Studies have supported the factorial and construct validity of BREQ-2. Furthermore, BREQ-2 has been shown to be a reliable instrument to determine the regulation levels of the amotivation-intrinsic motivation continuum (Markland and Tobin, 2004). | Adds the dimension of amotivation to BREQ. Strong validity. | Amotivation assessment in BREQ-2 has been criticised (Liu et al, 2020).37 |
| BREQ-3 Wilson et al28 | Target group is the general population. BREQ-3 consists of 24 items and 6 subscales, adding integrated regulation to BREQ-2. | The tool assesses the six types of motivation in self-determination theory as well as amotivation. | The BREQ-3 has been found to be a valid and a reliable measurement instrument to measure behaviour regulations, stemming from self-determination theory, in the exercise domain.28 | BREQ-3 is a valid and reliable measurement of behaviour regulation underlying Self-determination theory in the exercise domain. Used broadly among researchers. | It has been suggested that it is difficult to translate some of the items to different language and cultural contexts directly (Cid et al, 2018).38 |
| Sports Motivation Scale (SMS-6): Revised six-factor sports motivation scale. Mallett et al, (2007).39 | Target group are athletes’ motivation toward sport participation. SMS-6 consists of 24 items and six subscales, stemming from self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985). | The SMS-6 is a measure of contextual motivation that is intended to identify the perceived reasons for participating in sport. | Items measuring self-determining forms of extrinsic motivation have been found to possess satisfactory levels of construct validity. Moreover, it has been found that integrated regulation significantly and positively correlated with various aspects of flow (eg, autotelic experience, sense of control) (Mallett et al, 2007). | SMS-6 is preferable to the original SMS. | It measures motivation for sport, which make it less inclusive in term of general PA. |
| The Behavioural Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ). Lonsdale et al, (2008).40 | Target group are elite and nonelite athlete populations (competitive). Consists of 7 subscales and 36 items. | Measures intrinsic motivation, four types of extrinsic motivation and amotivation (self-determination theory; Deci and Ryan, 1985). | BRSQ has shown good reliability and validity in elite and nonelite athlete populations. The test–retest reliability of the scores has been found acceptable. The factorial validity of the BRSQ scores has also been generally supported. The majority of the evidence also supports the nomological validity of the scores. (Lonsdale et al, 2008). | Strong reliability and validity. | Developed for competitive sports. |
| Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES). Vlachopoulos, Ntoumanis and Smith (2010).41 | Target group is the general population. The BPNSE is an 18-item scale with three subscales. | Satisfaction/fulfilment of the three basic psychological needs during exercise | BPNES has shown satisfactory internal reliability coefficients, and evidence for the factor concurrent, discriminant and nomological validity of the translated scale. Cross-cultural validity analyses supported configural invariance and partial metric, partial strong, and partial strict factorial invariance of the BPNES responses (Vlachopoulos et al, 2010). | Cross-cultural validated. Relatively short. Strong reliability and validity. | Possible gender measurement non-invariance. |
| Self-Motivation Inventory (SMI-10). André and Dishman (2012).42 | Target group are elderly participants. SMI-10 is a 10- item short version of the original SMS (40 items). | Measures participants’ self-motivation for exercise adherence. | The SMI-10 shows acceptable internal consistency reliability, similar to the original SMI-40 score. (Andre and Dishman, 2012). | Predicts drop-out from exercise. Validated in English and French. The shortened version SMI-10 has acceptable internal consistency. | Mostly used among elders. |
| Sports Motivation Scale (SMS-II). Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci and Ryan (2013).43 | Target groups are sport participants. SMS-II consists of 18 items and six subscales. | The tool assesses the level of motivation towards sport, using the self-determination theory framework (Deci and Ryan, 1985). | Studies have found a good factor structure and adequate convergent validity. Furthermore, the construct validity has been supported (Pelletier et al, 2013). | Stronger measurement than SMS. Adds to BRSQ and SMS-6. | Needs more research on test–retest reliability. The invariance of the measurement with regard to different age groups is unknown. |