Factors associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD) by univariate and multivariate analysis (N = 12 109)
| Characteristics | Count | CKD | ||
| N | CKD prevalence (n %) | COR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | |
| Age | ||||
| 20–39 years | 4336 | 118 (2.6) | 1 | 1 |
| 40–59 years | 5034 | 294 (5.8) | 2.3 (1.8 to 3.0)‡ | 1.4 (1.0 to 1.8)* |
| 60 years and above | 2739 | 316 (11.5) | 4.9 (3.8 to 6.3)‡ | 2.6 (1.9 to 3.6)‡ |
| Sex | ||||
| Female | 7401 | 415 (5.7) | 1 | 1 |
| Male | 4708 | 313 (6.5) | 1.2 (1.0 to 1.4) | 1.2 (0.8 to 1.6) |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Upper caste | 4144 | 212 (5.1) | 1 | 1 |
| Disadvantaged Janajati | 2546 | 138 (5.4) | 1.1 (0.8 to 1.4) | 1.1 (0.9 to 1.5) |
| Dalit | 1225 | 84 (7.1) | 1.4 (1.0 to 1.9)* | 1.6 (1.1 to 2.3)† |
| Disadvantaged non-Dalitterai caste | 1836 | 116 (6.4) | 1.3 (0.9 to 1.7) | 1.4 (0.9 to 2.1) |
| Religious minorities | 340 | 25 (8.0) | 1.6 (1.0 to 2.7) | 1.7 (1.0 to 2.9) |
| Relatively advantaged Janajati | 2018 | 153 (7.4) | 1.5 (1.1 to 2.0)* | 1.4 (1.0 to 1.9)* |
| Education | ||||
| Illiterate/no formal schooling | 6607 | 459 (7.0) | 1 | 1 |
| Below secondary (<10 years) | 2742 | 146 (5.4) | 0.8 (0.6 to 0.9)† | 1.1 (0.9 to 1.5) |
| Secondary and above (≥10 years) | 2760 | 123 (4.5) | 0.6 (0.5 to 0.8)‡ | 1.1 (0.7 to 1.4) |
| Province | ||||
| Karnali Province | 588 | 30 (4.7) | 1 | 1 |
| Province 1 | 2049 | 100 (5.2) | 1.1 (0.7 to 1.8) | 1.1 (0.6 to 2.0) |
| Madhesh Province | 2003 | 133 (6.6) | 1.4 (0.9 to 2.3) | 1.2 (0.6 to 2.2) |
| Bagmati Province | 3096 | 196 (6.5) | 1.4 (0.9 to 2.2) | 1.1 (0.6 to 1.9) |
| Gandaki Province | 1315 | 93 (6.8) | 1.5 (0.9 to 2.3) | 1.2 (0.7 to 2.0) |
| Lumbini Province | 2030 | 118 (5.7) | 1.2 (0.7 to 2.2) | 0.9 (0.5 to 1.6) |
| Sudurpashchim Province | 1028 | 58 (5.9) | 1.3 (0.7 to 2.2) | 1.4 (0.7 to 2.6) |
| Place of residence | ||||
| Rural | 6107 | 341 (5.8) | 1 | 1 |
| Urban | 6002 | 387 (6.5) | 1.2 (1.0 to 1.4) | 1.0 (0.8 to 1.3) |
| Smoking habit | ||||
| Non smoker | 8305 | 443 (5.3) | 1 | 1 |
| Smokers | 3804 | 285 (7.6) | 1.5 (1.2 to 1.7)‡ | 1.2 (1.0 to 1.5) |
| Alcohol consumption | ||||
| No | 9131 | 537 (6.0) | 1 | 1 |
| Yes | 2978 | 191 (6.2) | 1.0 (0.9 to 1.2) | |
| Blood pressure | ||||
| Normal | 7754 | 256 (3.3) | 1 | 1 |
| Raised | 4355 | 472 (10.8) | 3.6 (3.0 to 4.3)‡ | 2.4 (2.0 to 3.0)‡ |
| Body mass index (N=12 108)§ | ||||
| Normal | 6896 | 377 (5.5) | 1 | 1 |
| Underweight | 1494 | 88 (6.2) | 1.1 (0.9 to 1.5) | 1.1 (0.8 to 1.6) |
| Overweight and obese | 3718 | 263 (6.9) | 1.3 (1.1 to 1.5)† | 0.9 (0.7 to 1.1) |
| Total cholesterol (N=10 861)§ | ||||
| Normal | 7741 | 398 (5.2) | 1 | 1 |
| Raised | 3120 | 254 (8.2) | 1.6 (1.3 to 2.0)‡ | 1.3 (1.0 to 1.6)* |
| Waist hip ratio (N=11 979)§ | ||||
| Normal | 5095 | 282 (5.4) | 1 | 1 |
| Increased | 6884 | 440 (6.6) | 1.2 (1.0 to 1.5)* | 1.6 (1.2 to 2.3)* |
| Diabetes mellitus (N=11 271)§ | ||||
| No | 10 393 | 506 (4.8) | 1 | 1 |
| Yes | 878 | 172 (19.8) | 4.9 (3.8 to 6.2)‡ | 3.2 (2.5 to 4.1)‡ |
| Total | 12 109 | 6.0 (95% CI 5.5 to 6.6) | ||
Definition of CKD status: urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio of ≥30 mg/g and/or glomerular filtration rate <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 both at baseline and follow-up).
AOR estimated from the stepwise multivariate logistic regression model with all the above variables added except alcohol consumption
*P value≤0.05.
†P value≤0.01.
‡P value≤0.0001.
§Missing value; refusal for blood sample collection led to variation in the sample size.
AOR, adjusted OR; COR, crude OR.