Model 1*: multivariable analysis | Model 2†: IPTW propensity score analyis | ||
HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | ||
Drug combination‡ | Benzo/opioid | REF | REF |
3+combo | 1.38 (1.14 to 1.67) | 1.28 (1.05 to 1.57) | |
Benzo+GABA | 1.05 (0.90 to 1.22) | 1.09 (0.92 to 1.30) | |
Benzo+SSRI or SNRI | 0.85 (0.70 to 1.05) | 0.90 (0.72 to 1.11) | |
GABA +SSRI or SNRI | 1.04 (0.88 to 1.23) | 1.07 (0.89 to 1.27) | |
Opioid +GABA | 1.18 (1.02 to 1.37) | 1.17 (1.00§ to 1.37) | |
Opioid +SSRI or SNRI | 1.09 (0.93 to 1.29) | 1.08 (0.91 to 1.29) | |
Sex | Male | REF | |
Female | 0.90 (0.80 to 1.01) | ||
Age | 65–74 | REF | |
75–84 | 1.36 (1.22 to 1.52) | ||
85+ | 1.74 (1.51 to 2.00) | ||
Race | White | REF | |
Black | 1.01 (0.82 to 1.25) | ||
Hispanic | 0.78 (0.61 to 1.00) | ||
Other | 1.11 (0.83 to 1.48) | ||
Region | WE | REF | |
MW | 0.97 (0.84 to 1.12) | ||
NE | 0.85 (0.72 to 0.99) | ||
SO | 0.89 (0.78 to 1.02) | ||
Original entitlement | Disabled/ESRD | REF | |
Old age | 1.14 (1.02 to 1.27) | ||
Medicaid dual eligibility | No | REF | |
Yes | 1.01 (0.91 to 1.13) | ||
History of fall | 2.48 (2.25 to 2.75) | ||
History of hospitalisation | 1.20 (1.08 to 1.33) | ||
Chronic conditions (HR is for yes vs no) | Alcohol use disorders | 1.20 (0.99 to 1.47) | |
Alzheimer/dementia | 1.37 (1.24 to 1.52) | ||
Arthritis | 1.02 (0.89 to 1.16) | ||
Asthma | 1.13 (1.00 to 1.27) | ||
Cancer | 1.18 (1.06 to 1.30) | ||
CKD | 1.20 (1.09 to 1.33) | ||
COPD | 1.16 (1.04 to 1.29) | ||
Depression | 1.07 (0.97 to 1.19) | ||
Diabetes | 1.18 (1.02 to 1.35) | ||
Drug use disorder | 1.24 (1.03 to 1.49) | ||
Epilepsy | 0.93 (0.84 to 1.03) | ||
Hearing impairment | 1.07 (0.93 to 1.23) | ||
Hip/pelvic fracture | 0.72 (0.56 to 0.93) | ||
Liver disease | 1.12 (0.96 to 1.30) | ||
Migraine/headache | 1.12 (0.96 to 1.30) | ||
Mobility impairment | 0.87 (0.73 to 1.05) | ||
Obesity | 0.95 (0.86 to 1.06) | ||
Osteoporosis | 0.98 (0.87 to 1.11) | ||
Spine injury | 0.97 (0.87 to 1.10) | ||
Vision impairment | 1.20 (0.96 to 1.50) |
*The multivariable analysis was adjusted for demographic variables, history of fall, history of hospitalisation and chronic conditions.
†Inverse probability of treatment weighting with propensity score.
‡The p value for the overall drug combination variable is 0.0011 for the fall models.
§The p value for the opioid +GABA combination in the propensity model is 0.0492 and the lower bound is 1.001.
CKD, chronic kidney disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; ESRD, End-stage renal disease; GABA, gabapentinoid; IPTW, inverse probability of treatment weighting; MW, Midwest; NE, Northeast; REF, reference group; SNRI, serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor; SO, South; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; WE, West.