Full inclusion and exclusion criteria
| Inclusion criteria | Exclusion criteria |
| Studies on undergraduate or preregistration medical students in any geographical setting. | Studies focusing only on virtual patient simulation, AR, MR, or serious gaming, without any involvement of VR. |
| Studies on VR used in undergraduate or preregistration medical education. | Studies published before 2010. |
| Studies involving the use of VR together with another modality, such as immersive VR, VR-based serious gaming, VR-based virtual patients. | Studies in languages other than English. |
| All primary studies, regardless of study design and relevant systematic reviews. | Opinion pieces, viewpoints and conceptual frameworks, conference abstracts |
AR, augmented reality; MR, mixed reality; VR, virtual reality.