Outcome | Theme | Potential specific factors |
Infection | Demographic factors | High number of people aged ≥65 years25 and high population density.21 25 |
Health system level factors | Low number of physicians and hospitals22 and low BCG vaccination.24 | |
Politico-economic factors | High economic openness, strong political democracy,23 more imports of goods and services, wide international tourism, high international travel24 and city connectivity.20 | |
Environmental factor | Low mean temperature.23 25 | |
Comorbid conditions | Low malaria infection rate,9 25 28 high HIV infection rate and under-5 diarrhoeal disease.9 | |
Severity | Demographic factors | High percentage of older age population profile.7 19 |
Comorbid conditions | People with HIV, TB and anaemia.19 21 | |
Death | Health system policy factors | Low prevention, detection, response and risk environment indices.27 |
Politico-economic factors | More imports of goods and services, wide international tourism,24 low global health security index score27 and low health expenditure (percentage of GDP).26 | |
Chronic illness and lifestyle factors | High prevalence of chronic illness and tobacco use.8 |
COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; GDP, gross domestic product; TB, tuberculosis.