Whole sample (n=9569) % (95% CI) | Adolescent boy (n=4761) % (95% CI) | Adolescent girl (n=4808) % (95% CI) | P value | |
Overall | 24.52 (18.11 to 32.30) | 22.02 (16.00 to 29.50) | 27.01 (20.07 to 35.29) | <0.001 |
Sociodemographic variables | ||||
Age | ||||
10–14 | 22.89 (16.31 to 31.14) | 20.82 (14.51 to 28.94) | 25.02 (18.00 to 33.64) | 0.001 |
15–17 | 25.24 (18.95 to 32.77) | 23.05 (16.95 to 30.55) | 27.39 (20.33 to 35.81) | 0.068 |
18–19 | 30.44 (23.71 to 38.13) | 25.41 (19.12 to 32.93) | 34.82 (26.35 to 44.37) | 0.015 |
Place of residence | ||||
Rural | 24.71 (18.04 to 32.86) | 22.28 (16.02 to 30.10) | 27.14 (19.90 to 35.83) | <0.001 |
Non-slum urban | 20.51 (11.83 to 33.15) | 15.19 (9.11 to 24.23) | 25.30 (14.48 to 40.39) | <0.001 |
Slum | 14.78 (4.29 to 40.16) | 15.45 (3.83 to 45.61) | 14.15 (4.72 to 35.44) | 0.66 |
Educational status | ||||
No education | 20.87 (12.73 to 32.28) | 18.80 (10.81 to 30.65) | 30.90 (13.63 to 55.89) | 0.239 |
Partial primary | 23.10 (16.16 to 31.89) | 21.09 (14.32 to 29.93) | 25.81 (18.07 to 35.42) | 0.052 |
Complete primary | 22.74 (16.63 to 30.28) | 20.52 (14.23 to 28.66) | 24.92 (18.17 to 33.17) | 0.123 |
Partial secondary | 24.50 (18.09 to 32.28) | 22.61 (16.37 to 30.37) | 26.02 (19.09 to 34.39) | 0.089 |
Complete secondary or above | 30.74 (22.19 to 40.86) | 25.12 (17.40 to 34.82) | 36.07 (26.21 to 47.27) | 0.002 |
Maternal education | ||||
No education | 25.22 (18.13 to 33.95) | 21.85 (15.57 to 29.76) | 28.66 (20.51 to 38.47) | <0.001 |
Partial primary | 25.63 (18.32 to 34.63) | 24.70 (16.37 to 35.47) | 26.62 (18.71 to 36.39) | 0.661 |
Complete primary | 23.96 (18.38 to 30.59) | 22.36 (16.39 to 29.73) | 25.46 (19.11 to 33.06) | 0.321 |
Partial secondary | 22.15 (15.84 to 30.09) | 20.89 (14.08 to 29.85) | 23.38 (16.96 to 31.32) | 0.313 |
Complete secondary or above | 27.35 (17.64 to 39.83) | 20.36 (11.41 to 33.68) | 33.83 (22.71 to 47.08) | 0.008 |
Paternal education | ||||
No education | 26.45 (19.09 to 35.41) | 23.59 (16.27 to 32.92) | 29.19 (21.53 to 38.25) | 0.006 |
Partial primary | 22.46 (15.95 to 30.64) | 21.32 (14.94 to 29.48) | 23.69 (15.68 to 34.13) | 0.532 |
Complete primary | 20.84 (15.69 to 27.15) | 17.82 (12.70 to 24.42) | 23.95 (17.13 to 32.43) | 0.099 |
Partial secondary | 22.53 (16.13 to 30.54) | 21.95 (15.70 to 29.82) | 23.14 (16.02 to 32.21) | 0.613 |
Complete secondary or above | 26.66 (17.57 to 38.27) | 22.35 (13.46 to 34.76) | 30.64 (20.53 to 43.02) | 0.053 |
Maternal occupation | ||||
Homemakers | 24.11 (17.70 to 31.94) | 21.47 (15.62 to 28.76) | 26.74 (19.61 to 35.32) | <0.001 |
Other | 27.89 (20.46 to 36.78) | 26.56 (16.98 to 39.01) | 29.16 (21.30 to 38.51) | 0.649 |
Paternal occupation | ||||
Farmer | 18.48 (13.93 to 24.10) | 14.66 (10.94 to 19.37) | 22.13 (15.78 to 30.13) | 0.011 |
Day labourer | 26.91 (18.98 to 36.65) | 26.22 (18.00 to 36.53) | 27.58 (19.61 to 37.28) | 0.509 |
Salaried staff | 21.53 (13.86 to 31.87) | 16.97 (10.06 to 27.20) | 25.81 (17.04 to 37.07) | 0.006 |
Business | 25.97 (18.86 to 34.61) | 23.26 (16.33 to 32.00) | 28.75 (20.38 to 38.88) | 0.092 |
Others | 26.26 (19.06 to 34.99) | 23.63 (16.67 to 32.36) | 28.98 (20.76 to 38.85) | 0.082 |
Religion | ||||
Muslim | 25.06 (18.37 to 33.20) | 22.47 (16.17 to 30.32) | 27.61 (20.36 to 36.27) | <0.001 |
Other | 20.43 (12.35 to 31.89) | 18.73 (10.35 to 31.52) | 22.25 (13.88 to 33.69) | 0.273 |
Household size | ||||
≤4 | 28.35 (20.65 to 37.56) | 26.09 (18.57 to 35.33) | 30.83 (22.84 to 40.16) | <0.001 |
≥5 | 20.72 (15.48 to 27.15) | 17.54 (13.01 to 23.23) | 23.57 (17.21 to 31.40) | 0.005 |
Less than 5-year-old household member | ||||
Yes | 23.48 (17.53 to 30.71) | 20.54 (15.04 to 27.40) | 25.65 (18.99 to 33.67) | 0.013 |
No | 24.89 (18.23 to 33.01) | 22.44 (16.20 to 30.23) | 27.61 (20.25 to 36.42) | 0.001 |
6–10-year-old household member | ||||
Yes | 22.71 (16.32 to 30.69) | 20.49 (14.37 to 28.35) | 24.7 (17.30 to 33.97) | <0.001 |
No | 25.35 (18.74 to 33.34) | 22.67 (16.41 to 30.43) | 28.16 (21.07 to 36.53) | <0.001 |
Another adolescent household member | ||||
Yes | 22.25 (16.48 to 29.34) | 19 (13.77 to 25.63) | 25.52 (18.87 to 33.53) | <0.001 |
No | 27.58 (19.98 to 36.75) | 26.14 (18.64 to 35.34) | 29 (21.12 to 38.39) | 0.036 |
≥60-year-old household member | ||||
Yes | 23.41 (16.71 to 31.76) | 21.77 (15.30 to 30.01) | 24.98 (17.49 to 34.34) | 0.198 |
No | 24.99 (18.51 to 32.84) | 22.12 (16.07 to 29.64) | 27.88 (20.77 to 36.32) | <0.001 |
Food security status of household | ||||
Food secure | 24.85 (17.20 to 34.49) | 23.17 (15.87 to 32.53) | 26.47 (18.34 to 36.59) | 0.009 |
Mild food insecurity | 17.23 (14.23 to 20.72) | 14.4 (11.25 to 18.25) | 20.07 (14.69 to 26.80) | 0.117 |
Moderate food insecurity | 23.89 (17.83 to 31.22) | 18.12 (12.71 to 25.18) | 29.74 (21.05 to 40.19) | 0.012 |
Severe food insecurity | 37.93 (25.95 to 51.60) | 33.25 (21.83 to 47.05) | 43.00 (29.76 to 57.32) | 0.015 |
Household use of fuel | ||||
Clean | 18.83 (11.22 to 29.87) | 11.96 (6.61 to 20.67) | 25.44 (15.64 to 38.56) | <0.001 |
Unclean | 24.95 (18.37 to 32.94) | 22.76 (16.53 to 30.47) | 27.13 (20.02 to 35.65) | 0.001 |
Household wealth | ||||
Richest | 26.89 (17.22 to 39.40) | 22.74 (14.54 to 33.74) | 31.04 (19.66 to 45.29) | 0.002 |
Richer | 25.62 (19.15 to 33.38) | 21.07 (14.89 to 28.94) | 30.13 (22.42 to 39.16) | 0.004 |
Middle | 24.63 (18.06 to 32.64) | 23.42 (16.89 to 31.52) | 25.75 (18.57 to 34.52) | 0.306 |
Poorer | 22.66 (16.56 to 30.19) | 21.49 (15.06 to 29.71) | 23.8 (17.29 to 31.82) | 0.389 |
Poorest | 24.18 (16.80 to 33.50) | 21.73 (15.47 to 29.63) | 26.83 (17.70 to 38.49) | 0.078 |
Lifestyle variables | ||||
Smoking | ||||
Currently smoke | 45.94 (34.61 to 57.70) | 45.95 (34.61 to 57.73) | 31.91 (9.45 to 67.80) | 0.446 |
Currently do not smoke | 24.15 (17.84 to 31.84) | 21.17 (15.40 to 28.39) | 27.01 (20.07 to 35.29) | <0.001 |
Any tobacco use | ||||
Yes | 44.81 (33.69 to 56.47) | 44.42 (33.37 to 56.04) | 49.00 (22.14 to 76.45) | 0.753 |
No | 24.00 (17.74 to 31.62) | 20.94 (15.27 to 28.03) | 26.91 (20.00 to 35.16) | <0.001 |
Dietary diversity | ||||
Inadequate (<5 food groups per day) | 23.33 (17.11 to 30.97) | 20.02 (14.38 to 27.19) | 26.34 (19.49 to 34.56) | <0.001 |
Adequate (≥5 food groups per day) | 25.86 (18.64 to 34.69) | 24.06 (16.87 to 33.10) | 27.85 (20.17 to 37.09) | 0.074 |
Fruits and vegetables intake | ||||
Insufficient (<5 servings per day) | 24.51 (17.98 to 32.48) | 21.91 (15.74 to 29.63) | 27.01 (19.98 to 35.42) | <0.001 |
Sufficient (≥5 servings per day) | 24.60 (17.66 to 33.19) | 23.09 (14.98 to 33.85) | 27.03 (18.66 to 37.43) | 0.482 |
Processed food intake | ||||
Yes | 23.74 (17.22 to 31.78) | 22.05 (16.01 to 29.57) | 25.66 (18.45 to 34.49) | 0.003 |
No | 26.84 (19.43 to 35.82) | 21.88 (14.49 to 31.64) | 30.17 (22.11 to 39.67) | 0.011 |
Consumption of fortified oil | ||||
Yes | 18.72 (12.54 to 27.00) | 16.2 (10.10 to 24.96) | 21.02 (14.03 to 30.25) | 0.122 |
No | 26.21 (19.46 to 34.30) | 23.62 (17.21 to 31.49) | 28.85 (21.55 to 37.45) | 0.001 |
Consumption of iodised salt | ||||
Yes | 18.96 (14.16 to 24.91) | 16.66 (12.36 to 22.08) | 21.21 (15.57 to 28.22) | 0.007 |
No | 34.76 (25.15 to 45.79) | 31.7 (22.50 to 42.60) | 37.86 (27.50 to 49.46) | 0.012 |
Physical activity | ||||
Insufficient (<150 minutes of moderate or <75 minutes of vigorous physical activity or equivalent/week) | 26.95 (19.97 to 35.28) | 20.2 (14.85 to 26.88) | 30.84 (22.79 to 40.25) | <0.001 |
Sufficient (≥150 minutes of moderate or ≥75 minutes of vigorous physical activity or equivalent/week) | 22.94 (16.53 to 30.90) | 22.76 (16.14 to 31.08) | 23.19 (16.67 to 31.30) | 0.816 |
Sedentary time/day | ||||
≤6 hours | 25.38 (18.04 to 34.46) | 23.07 (15.93 to 32.17) | 28.11 (20.14 to 37.74) | 0.017 |
>6 hours | 23.93 (17.90 to 31.22) | 21.19 (15.51 to 28.26) | 26.36 (19.64 to 34.39) | 0.007 |
Television viewing time/day | ||||
None | 20.71 (15.76 to 26.72) | 18.11 (13.04 to 24.58) | 23.18 (17.68 to 29.76) | 0.03 |
≤60 minutes | 23.44 (17.14 to 31.20) | 23.08 (16.80 to 30.83) | 23.86 (17.04 to 32.35) | 0.702 |
61–120 minutes | 25.81 (17.54 to 36.26) | 21.07 (14.05 to 30.36) | 30.1 (20.09 to 42.45) | 0.005 |
≥121 minutes | 40.53 (28.53 to 53.78) | 34.65 (21.14 to 51.20) | 45 (33.20 to 57.40) | 0.066 |
Anthropometric variables | ||||
Height | ||||
<140 cm | 19.72 (13.60 to 27.72) | 18.85 (13.10 to 26.35) | 20.85 (13.62 to 30.57) | 0.428 |
≥140–<160 cm | 26.61 (19.49 to 35.20) | 23.23 (15.84 to 32.72) | 28.24 (20.93 to 36.90) | 0.034 |
≥160 cm | 23.05 (17.19 to 30.18) | 22.61 (16.72 to 29.84) | 27.51 (19.34 to 37.52) | 0.186 |
Weight | ||||
<30 kg | 21.89 (15.01 to 30.78) | 19.89 (13.90 to 27.62) | 24.61 (16.07 to 35.76) | 0.057 |
≤30–<50 kg | 25.52 (18.98 to 33.38) | 24.38 (17.79 to 32.46) | 26.34 (19.56 to 34.48) | 0.258 |
≥50 kg | 24.03 (16.80 to 33.12) | 19.4 (13.17 to 27.63) | 32.51 (23.39 to 43.19) | <0.001 |
Body Mass Index | ||||
Underweight | 24.41 (17.86 to 32.42) | 22.94 (16.68 to 30.69) | 26.14 (18.98 to 34.85) | 0.037 |
Normal | 23.89 (17.81 to 31.25) | 20.28 (14.35 to 27.87) | 26.78 (20.18 to 34.60) | 0.003 |
Overweight and obese | 28.17 (19.10 to 39.45) | 20.54 (11.23 to 34.55) | 32.86 (23.38 to 43.98) | 0.022 |
P value was significant at <0.05.
*The cut-off of PHQ-9 score ≥5 was categorised as any depression for this analysis.