In-hospital COVID-19 | Pneumonia (after 2016) | Influenza (after 2016) | ||||||||||
No n=235 531 | Yes n=397 | RR* | P value | No n=96 605 | Yes n=209 | RR | P value | No n=96 720 | Yes n=94 | RR | P value | |
Age (years) † | 66.53 (8.09) | 67.55 (8.68) | 1.14 | 0.01 | 66.52 (8.06) | 68.78 (7.60) | 1.34 | <0.0001 | 66.53 (8.06) | 66.20 (7.83) | 0.96 | 0.69 |
Age categories (years), n (%) | ||||||||||||
<60 | 58 683 (24.92) | 102 (25.69) | 1 | REF | 23 707 (24.54) | 31 (14.83) | 1 | REF | 23 717 (24.52) | 21 (22.34) | 1 | REF |
60–64 | 37 589 (15.96) | 42 (10.58) | 0.64 | 0.02 | 15 230 (15.77) | 24 (11.48) | 1.20 | 0.49 | 15 233 (15.75) | 21 (22.34) | 1.56 | 0.15 |
65–69 | 42 812 (18.18) | 58 (14.61) | 0.78 | 0.13 | 17 606 (18.22) | 45 (21.53) | 1.95 | 0.004 | 17 632 (18.23) | 19 (20.21) | 1.22 | 0.54 |
70–74 | 55 726 (23.66) | 93 (23.43) | 0.96 | 0.78 | 23 233 (24.05) | 63 (30.14) | 2.07 | 0.0009 | 23 278 (24.07) | 18 (19.15) | 0.87 | 0.67 |
≥75 | 40 721 (17.29) | 102 (25.69) | 1.44 | 0.009 | 16 829 (17.42) | 46 (22.01) | 2.09 | 0.002 | 16 860 (17.43) | 15 (15.96) | 1.00 | 0.99 |
Male sex, n (%) | 111 095 (47.17) | 219 (55.16) | 1.38 | 0.001 | 45 548 (47.15) | 72 (34.45) | 0.59 | 0.0003 | 45 573 (47.12) | 47 (50.00) | 1.12 | 0.58 |
Ethnicity (%) | ||||||||||||
White | 224 215 (95.20) | 356 (89.67) | 1 | REF | 92 477 (95.73) | 201 (96.17) | 1 | REF | 92 588 (95.73) | 90 (95.74) | 1 | REF |
Black | 3057 (1.30) | 14 (3.53) | 2.88 | 0.0001 | 908 (0.94) | 3 (1.44) | 1.52 | 0.47 | 911 (0.94) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.97 |
South Asian | 3508 (1.49) | 12 (3.02) | 2.15 | 0.009 | 1605 (1.66) | 3 (1.44) | 0.86 | 0.80 | 1607 (1.66) | 1 (1.06) | 0.64 | 0.66 |
Others | 4751 (2.02) | 15 (3.78) | 1.99 | 0.009 | 1615 (1.67) | 2 (0.96) | 0.57 | 0.43 | 1614 (1.67) | 3 (3.19) | 1.91 | 0.27 |
Deprivation index (score) | −1.44 (2.98) | −0.56 (3.37) | 1.30 | <0.0001 | −1.48 (2.90) | −1.28 (3.07) | 1.07 | 0.31 | −1.48 (2.90) | −0.92 (3.32) | 1.20 | 0.06 |
Current/former smoker, n (%) | 106 829 (45.36) | 224 (56.42) | 1.56 | <0.0001 | 43 843 (45.38) | 93 (44.50) | 0.96 | 0.80 | 43 891 (45.38) | 45 (47.87) | 1.11 | 0.63 |
Alcohol drinking status, n (%) | ||||||||||||
Never | 8894 (3.78) | 27 (6.80) | 1 | REF | 3714 (3.84) | 13 (6.22) | 1 | REF | 3723 (3.85) | 4 (4.26) | 1 | REF |
Former | 7469 (3.17) | 19 (4.79) | 0.84 | 0.56 | 3090 (3.20) | 13 (6.22) | 1.20 | 0.64 | 3099 (3.20) | 4 (4.26) | 1.20 | 0.80 |
Current | 219 168 (93.05) | 351 (88.41) | 0.53 | 0.001 | 89 801 (92.96) | 183 (87.56) | 0.58 | 0.06 | 89 898 (92.95) | 86 (91.49) | 0.89 | 0.82 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 27.32 (4.56) | 29.12 (5.25) | 1.40 | <0.0001 | 27.41 (4.56) | 28.61 (5.58) | 1.26 | 0.0002 | 27.42 (4.57) | 27.53 (4.70) | 1.03 | 0.80 |
BMI categories, n (%) | ||||||||||||
Underweight | 787 (0.33) | 1 (0.25) | 1.17 | 0.88 | 305 (0.32) | 1 (0.48) | 1.65 | 0.62 | 306 (0.32) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.97 |
Normal | 78 073 (33.15) | 85 (21.41) | 1 | REF | 31 182 (32.28) | 62 (29.67) | 1 | REF | 31 209 (32.27) | 35 (37.23) | 1 | REF |
Overweight | 101 751 (43.20) | 172 (43.32) | 1.55 | 0.0009 | 41 867 (43.34) | 80 (38.28) | 0.96 | 0.81 | 41 917 (43.34) | 30 (31.91) | 0.64 | 0.07 |
Obese | 54 920 (23.32) | 139 (35.01) | 2.32 | <0.0001 | 23 251 (24.07) | 66 (31.58) | 1.43 | 0.04 | 23 288 (24.08) | 29 (30.85) | 1.11 | 0.68 |
Body fat-free mass (Kg) | 53.76 (11.47) | 56.18 (11.50) | 1.23 | <0.0001 | 53.75 (11.49) | 52.08 (12.04) | 0.86 | 0.04 | 53.74 (11.49) | 54.61 (12.17) | 1.08 | 0.46 |
Body fat mass (Kg) | 24.49 (9.19) | 27.44 (10.35) | 1.32 | <0.0001 | 24.69 (9.21) | 27.90 (11.25) | 1.35 | <0.0001 | 24.70 (9.22) | 24.31 (9.37) | 0.96 | 0.68 |
Body fat proportion (per cent) | 31.01 (8.40) | 32.36 (8.47) | 1.17 | 0.001 | 31.19 (8.41) | 34.29 (8.68) | 1.44 | <0.0001 | 31.19 (8.41) | 30.51 (8.46) | 0.92 | 0.43 |
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 137.24 (18.07) | 138.49 (18.76) | 1.07 | 0.17 | 137.55 (18.10) | 137.55 (18.03) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 137.55 (18.10) | 137.60 (17.40) | 1.00 | 0.98 |
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 82.08 (9.90) | 82.99 (10.47) | 1.10 | 0.07 | 82.19 (9.90) | 80.90 (9.63) | 0.88 | 0.06 | 82.19 (9.90) | 82.79 (10.74) | 1.06 | 0.56 |
FEV1 (L) | 2.86 (0.77) | 2.73 (0.78) | 0.84 | 0.0009 | 2.86 (0.78) | 2.53 (0.81) | 0.63 | <0.0001 | 2.86 (0.78) | 2.84 (0.88) | 0.98 | 0.84 |
FVC (L) | 3.79 (0.98) | 3.68 (0.97) | 0.89 | 0.03 | 3.79 (0.99) | 3.40 (1.01) | 0.65 | <0.0001 | 3.79 (0.99) | 3.73 (1.04) | 0.95 | 0.60 |
FEV1/FVC | 0.76 (0.06) | 0.74 (0.08) | 0.85 | 0.0004 | 0.76 (0.06) | 0.74 (0.08) | 0.82 | 0.0007 | 0.76 (0.06) | 0.76 (0.06) | 1.04 | 0.72 |
Walking pace (%) | ||||||||||||
Slow | 14 887 (6.32) | 59 (14.86) | 2.29 | <0.0001 | 6190 (6.41) | 29 (13.88) | 2.07 | 0.0005 | 6209 (6.42) | 10 (10.64) | 1.78 | 0.10 |
Average | 123 588 (52.47) | 213 (53.65) | 1 | REF | 50 839 (52.63) | 115 (55.02) | 1 | REF | 50 908 (52.63) | 46 (48.94) | 1 | REF |
Brisk | 97 056 (41.21) | 125 (31.49) | 0.75 | 0.010 | 39 576 (40.97) | 65 (31.10) | 0.73 | 0.04 | 39 603 (40.95) | 38 (40.43) | 1.06 | 0.78 |
Grip strength (kg) † | 31.31 (10.93) | 31.36 (10.31) | 1.00 | 0.93 | 31.21 (10.96) | 27.83 (10.83) | 0.72 | <0.0001 | 31.20 (10.96) | 31.94 (11.27) | 1.07 | 0.51 |
Prevalent disease at baseline (%) | ||||||||||||
Longstanding illness, n (%) | 68 208 (28.96) | 156 (39.29) | 1.59 | <0.0001 | 28 899 (29.91) | 89 (42.58) | 1.74 | <0.0001 | 28 954 (29.94) | 34 (36.17) | 1.33 | 0.19 |
Diabetes | 10 969 (4.66) | 38 (9.57) | 2.16 | <0.0001 | 4575 (4.74) | 20 (9.57) | 2.12 | 0.001 | 4591 (4.75) | 4 (4.26) | 0.89 | 0.82 |
CVD | 11 238 (4.77) | 35 (8.82) | 1.93 | 0.0002 | 4870 (5.04) | 18 (8.61) | 1.77 | 0.02 | 4884 (5.05) | 4 (4.26) | 0.84 | 0.73 |
Cancer | 15 849 (6.75) | 32 (8.12) | 1.22 | 0.28 | 6557 (6.81) | 27 (12.92) | 2.03 | 0.0006 | 6573 (6.82) | 11 (11.70) | 1.81 | 0.06 |
Depression | 45 781 (19.44) | 68 (17.13) | 0.86 | 0.25 | 18 651 (19.31) | 34 (16.27) | 0.81 | 0.27 | 18 667 (19.30) | 18 (19.15) | 0.99 | 0.97 |
CKD stages 3–5 | 293 (0.12) | 2 (0.50) | 4.04 | 0.049 | 128 (0.13) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.97 | 128 (0.13) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.98 |
SLE | 274 (0.12) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.96 | 125 (0.13) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.97 | 125 (0.13) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.98 |
Asthma | 27 722 (11.77) | 54 (13.60) | 1.18 | 0.26 | 11 433 (11.83) | 34 (16.27) | 1.45 | 0.049 | 11 454 (11.84) | 13 (13.83) | 1.19 | 0.55 |
Sleep apnoea | 718 (0.30) | 4 (1.01) | 3.32 | 0.02 | 317 (0.33) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.97 | 317 (0.33) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.97 |
COPD | 536 (0.23) | 3 (0.76) | 3.33 | 0.04 | 241 (0.25) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.96 | 240 (0.25) | 1 (1.06) | 4.31 | 0.15 |
Bronchitis | 2515 (1.07) | 8 (2.02) | 1.90 | 0.07 | 1085 (1.12) | 6 (2.87) | 2.59 | 0.02 | 1087 (1.12) | 4 (4.26) | 3.90 | 0.008 |
Pneumonia | 2938 (1.25) | 8 (2.02) | 1.63 | 0.17 | 1152 (1.19) | 4 (1.91) | 1.61 | 0.34 | 1155 (1.19) | 1 (1.06) | 0.89 | 0.91 |
Other respiratory disease | 1243 (0.53) | 3 (0.76) | 1.43 | 0.53 | 511 (0.53) | 1 (0.48) | 0.90 | 0.92 | 512 (0.53) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.98 |
Medication at baseline, n (%) | ||||||||||||
Statin | 36 314 (15.42) | 98 (24.69) | 1.80 | <0.0001 | 15 358 (15.90) | 39 (18.66) | 1.21 | 0.28 | 15 389 (15.91) | 8 (8.51) | 0.49 | 0.055 |
BP medication | 37 590 (15.96) | 105 (26.45) | 1.89 | <0.0001 | 15 719 (16.27) | 34 (16.27) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 15 741 (16.27) | 12 (12.77) | 0.75 | 0.36 |
Steroid | 876 (0.37) | 1 (0.25) | 0.68 | 0.70 | 354 (0.37) | 1 (0.48) | 1.31 | 0.79 | 355 (0.37) | 0 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.98 |
Biomarker at baseline | ||||||||||||
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)† | 5.62 (4.92–6.34) | 5.48 (4.68–6.21) | 0.85 | 0.001 | 5.62 (4.91–6.34) | 5.62 (4.84–6.30) | 0.99 | 0.94 | 5.62 (4.91–6.34) | 5.62 (5.04–6.37) | 1.07 | 0.49 |
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.40 (1.17–1.67) | 1.29 (1.09–1.54) | 0.71 | <0.0001 | 1.39 (1.17–1.67) | 1.41 (1.14–1.70) | 1.01 | 0.87 | 1.39 (1.17–1.67) | 1.36 (1.12–1.64) | 0.92 | 0.44 |
Cystatin C (mg/L) | 0.88 (0.80–0.97) | 0.92 (0.83–1.02) | 1.34 | <0.0001 | 0.88 (0.80–0.97) | 0.89 (0.80–1.01) | 1.12 | 0.07 | 0.88 (0.80–0.97) | 0.91 (0.82–0.98) | 1.03 | 0.76 |
HbA1c (mmol/mol) † | 35.10 (32.60–37.60) | 36.20 (33.60–39.60) | 1.30 | <0.0001 | 35.10 (32.60–37.60) | 36.00 (33.50–39.00) | 1.22 | <0.0001 | 35.10 (32.60–37.60) | 35.10 (32.32–38.30) | 1.08 | 0.39 |
CRP (mg/L) † | 1.25 (0.63–2.56) | 1.58 (0.86–3.28) | 1.15 | 0.0001 | 1.27 (0.64–2.59) | 1.37 (0.84–3.27) | 1.14 | 0.01 | 1.27 (0.64–2.59) | 1.34 (0.70–2.93) | 1.07 | 0.47 |
Rheumatoid factor (IU/ml) | 3.16 (3.16–3.16) | 3.16 (3.16–3.16) | 1.02 | 0.64 | 3.16 (3.16–3.16) | 3.16 (3.16–3.16) | 1.04 | 0.50 | 3.16 (3.16–3.16) | 3.16 (3.16–3.16) | 1.04 | 0.64 |
Red cell distribution width (%) | 13.30 (12.90–13.80) | 13.32 (12.97–13.95) | 1.12 | 0.01 | 13.30 (12.89–13.80) | 13.38 (12.97–14.02) | 1.15 | 0.02 | 13.30 (12.89–13.80) | 13.27 (12.97–13.70) | 0.90 | 0.36 |
White cell count (*109/L) | 6.60 (5.61–7.80) | 6.90 (5.84–8.26) | 1.17 | 0.001 | 6.63 (5.64–7.80) | 6.90 (5.80–8.29) | 1.15 | 0.03 | 6.63 (5.64–7.80) | 6.60 (5.50–7.76) | 1.02 | 0.82 |
Neutrophil count (*109/L) | 4.00 (3.25–4.90) | 4.12 (3.29–5.13) | 1.12 | 0.02 | 4.01 (3.26–4.92) | 4.11 (3.41–5.15) | 1.10 | 0.13 | 4.01 (3.26–4.92) | 4.02 (3.30–5.05) | 0.99 | 0.93 |
Lymphocyte count (*109/L) | 1.88 (1.52–2.29) | 1.90 (1.55–2.40) | 1.13 | 0.009 | 1.88 (1.52–2.30) | 1.92 (1.60–2.36) | 1.11 | 0.12 | 1.88 (1.52–2.29) | 1.85 (1.51–2.53) | 1.04 | 0.68 |
Monocyte count (*109/L) | 0.45 (0.36–0.56) | 0.47 (0.39–0.59) | 1.13 | 0.01 | 0.45 (0.37–0.57) | 0.48 (0.37–0.59) | 1.07 | 0.31 | 0.45 (0.37–0.57) | 0.50 (0.40–0.57) | 1.14 | 0.17 |
Numbers represent number (%) for categorical variables, mean (SD) for Gaussian continuous variables, and median (25–75 percentiles) for skewed variables
*Univariable risk ratio per 1 SD for continuous variables and using comparator group for categorical variables.
†Evidence for non-linear association with COVID-19 (see online supplemental table 33)
BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; CKD, chronic kidney disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CRP, C reactive protein; CVD, cardiovascular disease; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 s; FVC, forced vital capacity; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus.