Characteristics of study subjects
| N | All participants | Male | Female |
| 1629 | 687 | 942 | |
| Age (years old) | 73.1±5.4 | 73.0±5.3 | 73.2±5.4 |
| Height (cm) | 158.0±8.8 | 165.8±5.9 | 152.4±5.6 |
| Body weight (kg) | 58.2±10.4 | 65.7±8.6 | 52.7±7.7 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 23.2±3.1 | 23.9±2.8 | 22.7±3.2 |
| Education (year) | 13.9±2.5 | 14.9±2.5 | 13.2±2.2 |
| Worker/volunteer (n; %) | 563 (34.6) | 288 (41.9) | 275 (29.2) |
| Needing long-term care (n; %) | 27 (1.7) | 14 (2.0) | 13 (1.4) |
| Solitude (n; %) | 342 (21.0) | 84 (12.2) | 258 (27.4) |
| Hypertension (n; %) | 748 (45.9) | 368 (53.6) | 380 (40.3) |
| Diabetes (n; %) | 187 (11.5) | 113 (16.4) | 74 (7.9) |
| Dyslipidemia (n; %) | 639 (39.2) | 231 (33.6) | 408 (43.3) |
| Cerebrovascular disease (n; %) | 68 (4.2) | 34 (4.9) | 34 (3.6) |
| Cardiovascular disease (n; %) | 75 (4.6) | 50 (7.3) | 25 (2.7) |
| Cancer (n; %) | 40 (2.5) | 25 (3.6) | 15 (1.6) |
| Cerebral small vessel disease (n; %) | 402 (24.8) | 178 (26.1) | 224 (23.9) |
| Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 136.6±17.1 | 136.8±16.4 | 136.5±17.6 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 84.3±9.8 | 86.4±9.7 | 82.8±9.5 |
| Cardio Ankle Vascular Index: Right | 9.0±1.1 | 9.2±1.1 | 8.8±1.1 |
| Cardio Ankle Vascular Index: Left | 8.9±1.1 | 9.1±1.0 | 8.7±1.0 |
| Skeletal muscle mass (kg/m2) | 7.1±1.1 | 7.9±0.9 | 6.5±0.8 |
| Muscle isokinetic strength (Nm/kg) | 133.2±37.5 | 148.4±38.8 | 122.2±32.3 |
| Hang-grip strength (kg) | 25.9±7.1 | 32.3±5.7 | 21.2±3.5 |
| Gait speed (m/sec) | 1.9±0.4 | 2.0±0.4 | 1.8±0.3 |
| Timed up and Go test (sec) | 6.7±1.6 | 6.5±1.6 | 6.8±1.5 |
| Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (point) | 6.7±1.5 | 5.0±0.3 | 8.0±0.2 |
| Depression: GDS ≥10 point (n; %) | 31 (1.9) | 15 (2.2) | 16 (1.7) |
| Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dL) | 100.5±16.7 | 104.5±18.2 | 97.6±14.8 |
| Fasting plasma insulin (μU/mL) | 4.9±3.3 | 5.0±3.4 | 4.8±3.2 |
| HbA1c (%) | 5.8±0.6 | 5.9±0.6 | 5.8±0.5 |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 98.5±54.2 | 104.5±60.6 | 94.1±48.6 |
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 64.3±16.5 | 58.7±15.7 | 68.4±16.0 |
| LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 121.3±30.8 | 113.8±30.7 | 126.8±29.7 |
| Aspartate aminotransferase (IU/L) | 23.5±9.5 | 23.6±9.4 | 23.4±9.6 |
| Alanine aminotransferase (IU/L) | 19.3±11.1 | 20.4±12.4 | 18.5±10.1 |
| γ-glutamyl transferase (IU/L) | 30.8±35.8 | 40.3±49.5 | 23.8±17.8 |
| Serum albumin (g/dL) | 4.3±0.4 | 4.3±0.4 | 4.3±0.4 |
| Creatinine (mg/dL) | 0.8±0.3 | 0.9±0.4 | 0.7±0.2 |
| Matsuda index | 7.3±4.1 | 7.4±4.6 | 7.2±3.7 |
| Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) (point) | 25.1±3.0 | 24.7±3.0 | 25.5±3.0 |
| Mild Cognitive Impairment: MoCA ≤22 point (n; %) | 295 (18.1) | 152 (22.1) | 143 (15.2) |
| Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) (point) | 27.7±1.9 | 27.5±2.0 | 27.9±1.9 |
| Dementia: MMSE ≤23 point (n; %) | 53 (3.3) | 23 (3.3) | 30 (3.2) |
| Bone mineral density of the femoral neck (g/cm²) | 0.6±0.1 | 0.7±0.1 | 0.6±0.1 |
| Bone mineral density of the lumbar spine (g/cm²) | 0.9±0.2 | 1.1±0.2 | 0.8±0.2 |