Regression results of determinants of antibiotic use from public, private and informal sources
| Site Model number | Confirmed antibiotic use episodes | Confirmed and potential antibiotic use episodes | ||||||||||
| Public providers | Private providers | Informal providers | Public providers | Private providers | Informal providers | |||||||
| CR (1) | SAL (2) | CR (3) | SAL (4) | CR (5) | SAL (6) | CR (7) | SAL (8) | CR (9) | SAL (10) | CR (11) | SAL (12) | |
| Independent variables | ||||||||||||
| Would not buy antibiotics over the counter | 0.045* (−0.01 to 0.10) | 0.168** (0.02 to 0.32) | 0.074 (−0.02 to 0.16) | −0.040 (−0.13 to 0.05) | −0.050 (−0.11 to 0.01) | −0.008 (−0.09 to 0.08) | 0.117** (0.01 to 0.23) | 0.530*** (0.16 to 0.90) | 0.151* (−0.03 to 0.33) | −0.095 (−0.33 to 0.14) | −0.031 (−0.10 to 0.04) | 0.021 (−0.14 to 0.18) |
| Prefers antibiotics over alternatives | −0.023 (−0.08 to 0.03) | −0.017 (−0.12 to 0.08) | −0.124** (−0.22 to −0.03) | −0.009 (−0.10 to 0.08) | 0.033 (−0.02 to 0.08) | −0.014 (−0.09 to 0.07) | −0.026 (−0.17 to 0.12) | −0.222* (−0.44 to 0.00) | −0.161* (−0.35 to 0.03) | 0.054 (−0.18 to 0.28) | 0.005 (−0.07 to 0.08) | 0.044 (−0.10 to 0.19) |
| Does not keep antibiotics for future use | −0.049* (−0.10 to 0.00) | −0.008 (−0.11 to 0.09) | −0.060 (−0.14 to 0.02) | −0.013 (−0.12 to 0.09) | −0.024 (−0.08 to 0.03) | 0.037 (−0.07 to 0.15) | −0.073 (−0.20 to 0.05) | 0.185 (−0.18 to 0.55) | −0.056 (−0.25 to 0.14) | 0.056 (−0.26 to 0.37) | −0.049 (−0.12 to 0.02) | −0.050 (−0.21 to 0.11) |
| Knows that antibiotic resistance can spread | 0.041 (−0.05 to 0.13) | −0.088 (−0.35 to 0.17) | 0.030 (−0.11 to 0.17) | −0.051 (−0.34 to 0.24) | 0.035 (−0.04 to 0.11) | −0.155*** (−0.25 to −0.06) | 0.068 (−0.15 to 0.29) | −0.355 (−1.53 to 0.82) | −0.060 (−0.25 to 0.13) | −0.138 (−0.73 to 0.46) | 0.013 (−0.09 to 0.11) | −0.247*** (−0.39 to −0.10) |
| Aware of antibiotics | −0.028 (−0.12 to 0.07) | 0.101* (−0.00 to 0.20) | 0.109** (0.01 to 0.21) | 0.017 (−0.08 to 0.11) | −0.135 (−0.38 to 0.10) | 0.064** (0.01 to 0.12) | 0.093 (−0.20 to 0.39) | 0.185 (−0.28 to 0.65) | −0.197 (−0.78 to 0.39) | −0.346 (−0.94 to 0.25) | −0.073 (−0.33 to 0.18) | 0.130* (−0.00 to 0.26) |
| Aware of drug resistance† | −0.041 (−0.11 to 0.03) | 0.056 (−0.08 to 0.20) | 0.056 (−0.03 to 0.14) | 0.086 (−0.04 to 0.21) | 0.016 (−0.01 to 0.05) | 0.014 (−0.09 to 0.12) | −0.143* (−0.29 to 0.01) | −0.041 (−0.39 to 0.31) | −0.063 (−0.33 to 0.20) | 0.113 (−0.16 to 0.38) | −0.024 (−0.09 to 0.04) | −0.027 (−0.20 to 0.14) |
| Female | −0.005 (−0.06 to 0.06) | 0.086* (−0.01 to 0.18) | −0.005 (−0.09 to 0.08) | −0.064 (−0.17 to 0.04) | 0.035 (−0.02 to 0.09) | 0.049 (−0.03 to 0.13) | −0.122 (−0.27 to 0.03) | 0.168 (−0 09 to 0.42) | 0.001 (−0.19 to 0.20) | −0.296* (−0.59 to 0.00) | 0.028 (−0.04 to 0.09) | 0.181** (0.03 to 0.33) |
| Age | −0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) | −0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) | 0.003* (−0.00 to 0.01) | −0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) | −0.002* (−0.00 to 0.00) | 0.002 (−0.00 to 0.00) | 0.001 (−0.00 to 0.01) | −0.001 (−0.01 to 0.01) | 0.009** (0.00 to 0.02) | −0.004 (−0.01 to 0.00) | −0.001 (−0.00 to 0.00) | 0.007** (0.00 to 0.01) |
| Education (years) | −0.002 (−0.01 to 0.01) | −0.012* (−0.02 to 0.00) | 0.004 (−0.01 to 0.02) | 0.012 (−0.00 to 0.03) | −0.006** (−0.01 to −0.00) | 0.010 (−0.00 to 0.02) | 0.001 (−0.01 to 0.02) | −0.001 (−0.05 to 0.05) | 0.015 (−0.01 to 0.04) | 0.018 (−0.01 to 0.05) | −0.001 (−0.01–0.01) | 0.010 (−0.01–0.03) |
| Speaking Thai/Lao | 0.161*** (0.07 to 0.25) | 0.251*** (0.10 to 0.40) | 0.005 (−0.12 to 0.13) | −0.010 (−0.12 to 0.10) | 0.019 (−0.02 to 0.06) | 0.058 (−0.01 to 0.13) | −0.016 (−0.46 to 0.43) | 0.161 (−0.27 to 0.59) | −0.336 (−0.79 to 0.12) | −0.005 (−0.30 to 0.29) | 0.033 (−0.05 to 0.12) | 0.152** (0.01 to 0.30) |
| Wealth Index | −0.179 (−0.42 to 0.06) | −0.105 (−0.47 to 0.26) | −0.001 (−0.28 to 0.28) | 0.340* (−0.01 to 0.69) | 0.158** (0.01 to 0.31) | −0.121 (−0.35 to 0.10) | −0.417*(−0.90 to 0.06) | −1.073* (−2.26 to 0.12) | 0.323 (−0.30 to 0.95) | 0.505 (−0.30 to 1.31) | 0.241** (0.02 to 0.46) | 0.065 (−0.73 to 0.86) |
| Buddhist religion | −0.016 (−0.11 to 0.08) | −0.065 (−0.29 to 0.16) | −0.074 (−0.21 to 0.06) | −0.031 (−0.18 to 0.12) | 0.010 (−0.02 to 0.04) | 0.028 (−0.06 to 0.12) | −0.033 (−0.22 to 0.16) | 0.037 (−0.40 to 0.47) | −0.122 (−0.44 to 0.19) | −0.031 (−0.35 to 0.29) | 0.017 (−0.05 to 0.08) | −0.021 (−0.23 to 0.19) |
| Thai/Lao nationality | −0.030 (−0.13 to 0.07) | −0.140 (−0.53 to 0.25) | −0.069 (−0.24 to 0.10) | 0.013 (−0.11 to 0.13) | −0.003 (−0.06 to 0.06) | 0.088 (−0.03 to 0.21) | 0.009 (−0.37 to 0.39) | 0.003 (−0.43 to 0.44) | 0.005 (−0.52 to 0.53) | −0.118 (−0.46 to 0.22) | −0.078 (−0.24 to 0.09) | −0.603 (−1.95 to 0.74) |
| Majority ethnic group (Thai/Lao Loum) | 0.033 (−0.04 to 0.11) | 0.169* (−0.02 to 0.36) | 0.065 (−0.04 to 0.17) | −0.059 (−0.19 to 0.07) | 0.050** (0.01 to 0.09) | −0.039 (−0.14 to 0.06) | 0.049 (−0.11 to 0.21) | 0.360* (−0.04 to 0.76) | −0.044 (−0.27 to 0.18) | 0.118 (−0.20 to 0.44) | 0.035 (−0.03 to 0.10) | 0.030 (−0.17 to 0.23) |
| Self-rated severity (1=mild, 2=medium, 3=severe) | 0.063*** (0.02 to 0.10) | 0.009 (−0.08 to 0.09) | 0.002 (−0.05 to 0.05) | 0.062 (−0.02 to 0.14) | 0.009 (−0.02 to 0.04) | 0.023 (−0.03 to 0.08) | 0.077 (−0.02 to 0.17) | 0.254** (0.01 to 0.50) | 0.068 (−0.06 to 0.20) | 0.107 (−0.17 to 0.39) | 0.065** (0.01 to 0.12) | −0.038 (−0.20 to 0.12) |
| Log of duration of illness episode (days) | 0.060*** (0.02 to 0.10) | 0.036 (−0.01 to 0.08) | 0.076*** (0.03 to 0.12) | 0.046 (−0.01 to 0.10) | 0.003 (−0.02 to 0.02) | −0.025 (−0.07 to 0.02) | 0.275*** (0.16 to 0.39) | 0.507*** (0.27 to 0.74) | 0.257*** (0.10 to 0.41) | 0.234** (0.05 to 0.42) | 0.005 (−0.03 to 0.04) | −0.012 (−0.13 to 0.10) |
| Constant | −0.007 (−0.23 to 0.21) | −0.123 (−0.55 to 0.30) | −0.152 (−0.38 to 0.08) | −0.198 (−0.46 to 0.07) | 0.117 (−0.12 to 0.35) | −0.207* (−0.43 to 0.02) | −0.022 (−0.61 to 0.56) | −0.767 (−1.82 to 0.29) | −0.181 (−1.08 to 0.72) | 0.029 (−1.17 to 1.23) | −0.006 (−0.37 to 0.35) | 0.199 (−1.18 to 1.58) |
| Model statistics | ||||||||||||
| Number | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 | 604 | 356 |
| R2 | 0.102 | 0.106 | 0.080 | 0.133 | 0.104 | 0.046 | 0.143 | 0.218 | 0.126 | 0.136 | 0.052 | 0.095 |
| F statistic | 2.29*** | 3.34*** | 1.89** | 1.79** | 0.89 | 1.48 | 2.82*** | 4.57*** | 2.41*** | 1.30 | 1.18 | 2.27*** |
| Chow test | (2)–(1)=0 | (4)–(3)=0 | (6)–(5)=0 | (8)–(7)=0 | (10)–(9)=0 | (12)–(11)=0 | ||||||
| F statistic | 1.33 | 2.05** | 1.08 | 1.65* | 1.97** | * | 1.55* | |||||
Source: Authors’ analysis of survey data.
Notes: Illness episode level, including completed illnesses experienced by respondent or child under their supervision, excluding incomplete episodes. Population-weighted statistics, accounting for complex survey design. 95% CIs in parentheses.
*p<0.1, **p<0.05, ***p<0.01.
†Comparing Thai ‘due yah’ with the combined Lao ‘due yah’ and ‘lueng yah’.
CR, Chiang Rai; SAL, Salavan.