Table 3

Association of psychosocial stressors (PS) indicators (negative life events, discrimination, stress at work/home and depression) with albuminuria, reduced eGFR and CKD risk for Ghanaians living in Ghana and those living in Europe

Albuminuria (ACR≥3 mg/mmol)eGFR<60 mL/min/1.73 m2 High-to-very high CKD risk (KDIGO, 2012)
n (%)OR (95% CI)n (%)OR (95% CI)n (%)OR (95% CI)
Model 1Model 2Model 1Model 2Model 1Model 2
Negative events
Europe
 No1128 (8.2)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)1106 (2.6)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)1090 (8.5)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Yes1615 (8.4)1.03 (0.78 to 1.35)1.07 (0.80 to 1.42)1587 (2.5)0.86 (0.53 to 1.42)0.83 (0.49 to 1.39)1557 (8.6)0.97 (0.76 to 1.32)0.99 (0.74 to 1.32)
Ghana
 No732 (8.7)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)736 (4.5)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)732 (10.9)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Yes1595 (3.8)0.87 (0.65 to 1.16)0.85 (0.63 to 1.14)1601 (3.4)0.69 (0.45 to 1.08)0.67 (0.44 to 1.09)1590 (9.9)0.88 (0.66 to 1.17)0.86 (0.64 to 1.15)
Discrimination
Europe
 No1899 (8.5)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)1867 (2.6)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)1832 (8.9)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Yes810 (7.4)0.87 (0.64 to 1.19)0.92 (0.67 to 1.26)791 (2.2)0.83 (0.47 to 1.47)0.84 (0.46 to 1.52)782 (7.3)0.82 (0.59 to 1.12)0.84 (0.60 to 1.16)
Ghana
 No2034 (10.0)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)2047 (3.9)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)2031 (10.6)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Yes104 (7.7)0.83 (0.39 to 1.73)0.91 (0.67 to 1.24)104 (1.9)0.67 (0.15 to 2.85)0.67 (0.16 to 2.84)104 (6.7)0.70 (0.32 to 1.55)0.71 (0.32 to 1.55)
Stress at home/work
Europe
 Never1330 (8.2)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)1305 (3.4)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)1282 (8.5)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Some stress1002 (7.9)0.97 (0.72 to 1.31)1.04 (0.76 to 1.42)984 (1.4) 0.47 (0.26 to 0.87) 0.46 (0.24 to 0.88) 968 (8.6)0.96 (0.71 to 1.30)1.02 (0.74 to 1.39)
 Several/Permanent stresses397 (9.1)1.11 (0.74 to 1.64)1.153 (0.77 to 1.72)390 (2.3)0.73 (0.35 to 1.52)0.76 (0.36 to 1.61)383 (9.7)1.13 (0.77 to 1.68)1.19 (0.80 to 1.79)
Ghana
 Never682 (10.3)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)688 (3.3)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)682 (9.9)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Some stress1279 (9.5)0.87 (0.64 to 1.19)0.80 (0.59 to 1.11)1279 (3.9)1.06 (0.63 to 1.77)1.11 (0.66 to 1.87)1274 (10.3)0.95 (0.69 to 1.30)0.92 (0.67 to 1.26)
 Several/Permanent stresses365 (8.5)0.75 (0.48 to 1.18)0.68 (0.59 to 1.11)369 (4.1)1.13 (0.57 to 2.23)1.22 (0.61 to 2.46)365 (10.4)0.96 (0.63 to 1.47)0.92 (0.59 to 1.42)
Depressive symptoms
Europe
 No2505 (8.5)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)2457 (2.7)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)2416 (8.7)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Yes206 (6.3)0.71 (0.39 to 1.27)0.76 (0.43 to 1.36)202 (1.5)0.63 (0.19 to 2.03)0.68 (0.21 to 2.23)199 (7.1)0.78 (0.44 to 1.37)0.83 (0.47 to 1.46)
Ghana
 No2212 (9.9)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)2222 (3.8)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)2207 (10.4)1.00 (Reference)1.00 (Reference)
 Yes114 (5.3)0.45 (0.19 to 1.03)0.45 (0.19 to 1.01)114 (2.6)0.52 (0.16 to 1.72)0.53 (0.17 to 1.74)114 (7.9)0.62 (0.30 to 1.25)0.61 (0.30 to 1.24)

  • Model 1, adjusted for age and sex; model 2, adjusted for age, sex and educational level for Ghanaians (SSA) and length of stay for those in Europe.

  • The bold values are significant.

  • ACR, albumin creatinine ration; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; CKD, chronic kidney disease; KDIGO, Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes; n, total number of Ghanaians living in Ghana and Europe among the various levels of PS constructs; SAA, sub-Saharan Africa; %, proportion of individuals with CKD among the various levels of PS constructs in Ghana and Europe