Association of SES indicators (educational level, occupational status and wealth index level) with albuminuria, reduced eGFR and CKD risk
| Albuminuria (ACR ≥3 mg/mmol) | eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | High to very high CKD risk (KDIGO, 2012) | ||||
| n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | |
| Model 1 | Model 1 | Model 1 | ||||
| Education | ||||||
| Whole group | ||||||
| Low | 1152 (11.89) | 1.00 (Reference) | 1160 (3.97) | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.150 (11.91) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 847 (7.32) | 0.66 (0.48 to 0.91) | 849 (3.77) | 1.36 (0.83 to 2.22) | 845 (8.28) | 0.82 (0.59 to 1.12) |
| High | 343 (7.00) | 0.67 (0.42 to 1.07) | 345 (3.19) | 1.11 (0.55 to 2.29) | 343 (8.75) | 0.96 (0.62 to 1.49) |
| Urban Ghana | ||||||
| Low | 612 (14.7) | 1.00 (Reference) | 612 (4.1) | 1.00 (Reference) | 612 (14.1) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 546 (7.8) | 0.51 (0.34 to 0.76) | 546 (3.7) | 1.12 (0.59 to 2.12) | 545 (8.1) | 0.59 (0.39 to 0.89) |
| High | 238 (8.4) | 0.53 (0.31 to 0.91) | 238 (3.4) | 0.91 (0.37 to 2.19) | 238 (10.9) | 0.83 (0.51 to 1.38) |
| Rural Ghana | ||||||
| Low | 540 (8.7) | 1.00 (Reference) | 548 (3.8) | 1.00 (Reference) | 538 (9.5) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 301 (6.3) | 0.89 (0.51 to 1.59) | 303 (3.9) | 1.69 (0.77 to 3.66) | 300 (8.7) | 1.33 (0.79 to 2.25) |
| High | 105 (3.8) | 0.66 (0.23 to 1.95) | 107 (2.8) | 1.28 (0.35 to 4.71) | 105 (3.8) | 0.69 (0.23 to 2.02) |
| Occupational status | ||||||
| Whole group | ||||||
| Low | 614 (9.93) | 1.00 (Reference) | 616 (2.76) | 1.00 (Reference) | 613 (9.46) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 1427 (9.25) | 0.82 (0.59 to 1.14) | 1436 (3.34) | 0.93 (0.52 to 1.66) | 1424 (9.90) | 0.89 (0.65 to 1.24) |
| High | 302 (10.26) | 0.76 (0.47 to 1.22) | 303 (7.92) | 1.33 (0.67 to 2.62) | 302 (12.91) | 0.90 (0.57 to 1.42) |
| Urban Ghana | ||||||
| Low | 207 (10.1) | 1.00 (Reference) | 207 (6.8) | 1.00 (Reference) | 207 (12.1) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 817 (11.1) | 1.50 (0.88 to 2.83) | 817 (3.6) | 1.15 (0.56 to 2.35) | 816 (11.6) | 1.37 (0.84 to 2.56) |
| High | 373 (11.0) | 1.57 (0.89 to 2.53) | 373 (2.7) | 1.02 (0.41 to 2.52) | 373 (9.7) | 1.21 (0.68 to 2.14) |
| Rural Ghana | ||||||
| Low | 95 (10.5) | 1.00 (Reference) | 96 (10.4) | 1.00 (Reference) | 95 (14.7) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 610 (6.7) | 0.65 (0.31 to 1.37) | 619 (3.1) | 0.37 (0.16 to 0.85) | 608 (7.6) | 0.55 (0.28 to 1.08) |
| High | 241 (8.3) | 0.99 (0.43 to 2.28) | 243 (2.9) | 0.51 (0.18 to 1.44) | 240 (9.2) | 0.94 (0.44 to 2.01) |
| Wealth index | ||||||
| Whole group | ||||||
| Low | 808 (9.65) | 1.00 (Reference) | 813 (3.32) | 1.00 (Reference) | 808 (9.16) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 678 (10.91) | 1.18 (0.84 to 1.66) | 683 (3.81) | 1.30 (0.74 to 2.28) | 675 (12.0) | 1.43 (1.02 to 2.01) |
| High | 835 (8.62) | 0.93 (0.66 to 1.31) | 835 (4.19) | 1.55 (0.91 to 2.64) | 833 (9.96) | 1.21 (0.86 to 1.69) |
| Urban Ghana | ||||||
| Low | 367 (11.2) | 1.00 (Reference) | 367 (3.5) | 1.00 (Reference) | 367 (10.1) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 414 (12.3) | 1.12 (0.73 to 1.74) | 414 (3.9) | 1.30 (0.61 to 2.80) | 413 (13.1) | 1.45 (0.93 to 2.27) |
| High | 601 (9.8) | 0.82 (0.55 to 1.25) | 600 (3.8) | 1.13 (0.55 to 2.31) | 600 (10.8) | 1.11 (0.72 to 1.71) |
| Rural Ghana | ||||||
| Low | 441 (7.9) | 1.00 (Reference) | 446 (3.1) | 1.00 (Reference) | 441 (8.4) | 1.00 (Reference) |
| Middle | 264 (8.7) | 1.13 (0.65 to 1.98) | 269 (3.7) | 1.22 (0.52 to 2.84) | 262 (10.3) | 1.31 (0.77 to 2.25) |
| High | 234 (5.6) | 0.78 (0.40 to 1.53) | 235 (5.1) | 2.38 (1.03 to 5.47) | 233 (7.7) | 1.16 (0.63 to 2.14) |
Model 1, adjusted for age and sex.
%, proportion of individuals with CKD among the various levels of SES constructs in rural and urban Ghana. Bold values are significant at 5%
ACR, albumin–creatinine ration; CKD, chronic kidney disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; KDIGO, Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes; n, total number of individuals in the whole group, rural and urban Ghana among the various levels of SES constructs; SES, socioeconomic status.