Comparative studies
| Region | Sample size | Sampling frame | Focus | Findings |
| Breast cancer | ||||
| Abdul Hadi et al 70 (2010) | ||||
| Penang State, Malaysia | 65 healthy Indian women aged>15 years, 177 Malay and 121 Chinese | Two shopping malls | Differences in knowledge/perception of BC | Indians have less knowledge about risk factors, symptoms and screening options (subsidised mammography and CBE) compared with Malay and Chinese. Univariate analysis confounded by Indian population being least educated. |
| Pons-Vigués et al 43 (2012) | ||||
| Barcelona city, Spain | 25 Pakistani–Indian women 45–69 years, 275 Spanish women 660 other immigrant groups | Sampled from Census respondents | Adapted HBM based on qualitative pilot study (Pons-Vigues et al 43 (2012)) | Indian–Pakistani women perceived more barriers to mammography screening than host country women, but fewer than other immigrant groups. |
| Sim et al (2009) | ||||
| Singapore | 80 Indian women, 182 Malay, 700 Chinese, 38 other | Visitors to general hospital (not patients) | Knowledge and beliefs about BC and screening practices | No differences between Indian women and others in either knowledge or having ever attended a screening mammogram. |
| Teo et al 67 (2013) | ||||
| Singapore | 52 locally raised Indian women, 104 Chinese, 52 Malay | Female patients and visitors to polyclinic, aged 40–70 years | No theoretical model | Indian women less likely to have ever had mammogram compared with majority Chinese, but more likely than Malays. Indian women least likely group to cite cost or potential pain as barriers to attending mammography. |
| Vahabi et al (2016) | ||||
| Ontario, Canada | 18 880 South Asian, 85 872 other immigrant groups | Government database linkage study | No theoretical model | Lower mammography attendance in previous 2 years than other immigrant groups. |
| Wu et al 68 (2006) | ||||
| Michigan, USA | 38 Indian women aged ≥40 years, X Chinese, X Filipino | Community or religious groups; ethnic student associations, community events | HBM | No difference in CBE and mammography take up between ethnic groups. Indian women had lower scores on perceived susceptibility and seriousness than Filipino and Chinese controlling income. Indian women more likely to say ‘do not know where to find mammogram’. |
| Wu et al 69 (2008) | ||||
| Michigan, USA | 109 Asian Indians aged≥40 years, literate | Community events, cultural centres, faith-based organisations, Asian health fairs | HBM | No group differences. |
| Cervical cancer | ||||
| Dunn and Tan55 (2010) | ||||
| Malaysia | 96 married Indian women aged 25–65 years | Two-stage stratified-cluster random sampling | No theoretical model | Ever had Pap test: Indian population least likely to have ever had screening. Indian women who had ever received screening less likely to know its purpose than Malays. Indian women who had never had Pap test were 9% less likely to cite ‘ embarrassed’ as reason for not undergoing testing. |
| Marlow et al 33 (2015) | ||||
| England, UK | 120 Indian, 120 Pakistani, 120 Bangladeshi women, 120 white British, 120 Caribbean and 120 African | Quota sampling, random sampling within high ethnic concentration postcodes | No theoretical model | Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi women less likely to be screened over last 5 years than white British. Less knowledge than white British. |
| So et al 59 (2017) | ||||
| Hong Kong | 161 Indian, Nepali and Pakistani women, 959 Chinese women, 50+ years | Community centres or associations, Chinese sample recruited using random digit dialling | No theoretical model | SA women less likely to have been screened, had fewer tests in previous 6 years, longer time since last test. |
BC, breast cancer; CC, cervical cancer; FGD, focus group discussions; HBM, health belief model; HCP, healthcare provider or professional; IDI, in-depth interviews; Pap, Papanicolaou; SA, South Asian; SRH, sexual and reproductive health.