Table 2

Results: facilitator roles, n=150 articles

	Facilitation
	Internal					External			External-internal
	Informal	Formal
	Opinion leader	Coach	Champion	Facilitator			Boundary spanner
	Opinion leader	Coach	Champion	Research facilitator	Clinical/practice facilitator^†	Outreach facilitator	Linking agent	Knowledge broker	External-internal facilitators
Definition	A peer-nominated individual who informally influences individuals’ attitudes, professional behaviour, decision making, research use, clinically and educationally using their professional status to drive change	An individual who assists with making behaviour changes to improve performance and/or to use EBP through motivation, encouragement and positive reinforcement	A local visionary who uses expert knowledge to persuade others to adopt an innovation, idea or project	An individual who provides support to staff to strengthen their research skills and knowledge, and participation in research in a clinical setting	An individual who provides continuous (primarily) local assistance to others through a formal implementation process using peer support (eg, formal/informal education, shared learning and being a resource person)	Individuals external to the target organisation and/or practice (typically primary care) trained to assist others to improve performance (eg, uptake guidelines) through a formal implementation process using educational visits/AD/CQI	Individuals acting as intermediaries to span the boundary between research and practice to bring closer collaboration between the two systems	Intermediaries who build relationships between two communities, typically policymakers/decision makers and researchers, by sharing their expert knowledge and establishing communication channels	External facilitators (those external to the setting/off site) provided ongoing support to local facilitators implementing a practice change (eg, guidelines)
Key roles	Educationally influential about EBP35 36 42 61 63 65 110 142 180 188–190 Exert informal influence on individuals’ attitudes, behaviours and decision making60 61 68 180 191 Use professional status to drive change67	Provide feedback about research use76 138 192 Provide encouragement/motivation, positive reinforcement to use EBP75 76 Planning and goal setting73 193 Assist others with learning process73–75 192 Role model76 Build relationships73 76 138	Persuade others to adopt an innovation, idea or project37 40 44 46 48 77–79 133 136 143 150 153 159 170 184 194 Advocate change44 77 133 135 147 150 151 153 170 184 195 196 Motivate others52 153 159 163 194 197 198 Personal commitment to the project37 46 59 147 150 164 195 199	Facilitate research in a clinical setting39 80–83 158 160 161 177 182 200 201 Provide educational sessions about the research process39 80 81 161 182 Strengthen research skills of clinical staff39 80–82 Provide peer support for participation in research activities39 80–83 158 160 161 182 200 201 Establish local research programmes, committees/workshops/steering group80 160 182	Practice based30 32 45 51 84–95 98 99 101 134 137 140 141 152 169 173 202 203 Assess local needs for research use94 137 140 Identify modifiable barriers to change137 141 Identify resources for change30 137 140 141 152 Provide education, peer support, shared learning30 32 45 51 84–101 Monitor and evaluate practice change30 87 97 137 202 Serve as an ongoing resource person45 89 91 95 97 140 152 202 Some practice facilitators were external30 32 88 89 91 92 96 97 101 134 173	Guideline implementation/care delivery via educational outreach/AD visits (typically face-to-face)26 69 102–120 145 175 or CQI47 69 102 103 105 157 165 204 Provide feedback and support47 103 105 108 109 111 112 118 120 204 Provide audit and (performance) feedback102–106 115 117 145 175 Provide information/resources to promote uptake of best practice47 103 108 109 111 112 114 117 119 120 Build good working relationship between staff and facilitator112 145	Link research to practice29 123 Help bring together two systems24 29 Intermediary29 121 123 Help maintain links across professional, team, organisational boundaries122 123 Communicate information122 Help build relationships and networks for research-based change122 123	Intermediary between researchers and policymakers,124 125 128 decision makers/other stakeholders Catalyst for system change125 Promote research use in decision making43 125 126 128 171 205 Build networks,128 205 relationships of trust125 Facilitate learning and exchange of knowledge124–126 205 Establish communication channels124 125 128 Conduct environmental scan/needs assessment43 125 Knowledge management, capacity building, linkage and exchange activities128 171	External facilitators provided ongoing support (eg, guidance, assistance, being available) to internal facilitators41 49 56 57 129 130 Information sharing49 56 57 129 Build relationships57 Build capacity for improvement/change49 130
Training	Not trained for role42 60–67 142 190	May be trained for role75 138 or may not be trained for role192 193	May be trained for role37 46 48 133 135 206 or may not be trained for role52 59 163 164 194 195 199	Trained for role82	Trained for role30 32 93 94 98 100 134 137 140 178 202	Typically trained for role47 69 102–107 111 112 114 117–120	Trained for role24	Not trained for role,43 125 however, optimal training remains unknown43 and training needs may vary by setting171	External facilitators trained internal facilitators129
Key attributes and skills	Peer nominated42 60–68 Influential35 42 60 62 69 207 Credible/trustworthy62 68 Clinical knowledge/experience42 63 69–71 Role model180 Communication skills60 68 156 180	Negotiation skills73 193 Problem-solving skills73 76 Active listening and communication skills76 193 Leadership skills76 192	Expert knowledge of innovation40 52 164 179 199 Persuasive37 40 136 143 159 Mentorship skills77 135 143 153 179 Visionary37 163 Enthusiasm151 198 199 Creativity37 Driven151 and passionate about their work206 Communication skills40 59 159 208	Expert research knowledge/experience39 81–83 158 160 177 182 200 201 Leadership skills80 158	Expert knowledge in work area/clinical work experience30 45 84 86 87 90 91 93 94 98–101 140 141 152 Communication skills93 95 137 Credibile141 Empowering leadership style141 Reciprocal relationships between leaders (eg, managers) and facilitators203	Experienced/skilled practitioners (eg, physicians, nurses)26 69 102–105 112 119 175 204 Experience in management/business or health administration103 104 Knowledgeable112 204 Encourage others/provide positive reinforcement104 109 112 Approachable, flexible and available112 Credible112 204 Communication skills107	Strong critical thinking skills29 Strong interpersonal and communication skills29 Clinical credibility and research knowledge29	Expertise in both communities/cultures (research and policy)43 125 Skilled in interpretation/tailoring and application of knowledge43 124 125 Collaboration/networking skills124 Motivational skills43 Communication skills124 125 205	Organisational skills56 57 Relationship skills56 57 Communication skills56 57 Leadership skills56 57

AD, academic detailing; CQI, continuous quality improvement; EBP, evidence-based practice.