At risk of inadequacy | At risk of deficiency | |||
Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |
Sex | ||||
Women | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Men | 0.91 (0.70 to 1.18) | 1.23 (0.87 to 1.74) | 0.50 (0.39 to 0.65)*** | 1.28 (0.88 to 1.87) |
Age, years | ||||
65–79 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
≥80 | 1.18 (0.85 to 1.65) | 0.99 (0.67 to 1.46) | 2.91 (2.18 to 3.90)*** | 1.49 (1.03 to 2.16) |
Regional area | ||||
North | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Centre | 1.06 (0.74 to 1.52) | 1.24 (0.82 to 1.88) | 1.25 (0.90 to 1.73) | 1.23 (0.81 to 1.86) |
Lisbon Metropolitan Area | 1.02 (0.73 to 1.43) | 1.10 (0.75 to 1.62) | 0.51 (0.37 to 0.72)*** | 0.51 (0.33 to 0.79)* |
Alentejo | 0.98 (0.58 to 1.64) | 0.88 (0.50 to 1.54) | 1.22 (0.77 to 1.93) | 1.14 (0.66 to 2.00) |
Algarve | 1.24 (0.63 to 2.43) | 1.21 (0.57 to 2.57) | 1.00 (0.53 to 1.90) | 0.60 (0.27 to 1.32) |
Madeira | 0.66 (0.29 to 1.51) | 0.72 (0.30 to 1.73) | 0.17 (0.06 to 0.53)* | 0.22 (0.07 to 0.74)* |
Azores | 0.53 (0.18 to 1.59) | 0.56 (0.18 to 1.78) | 0.63 (0.25 to 1.56) | 0.80 (0.28 to 2.30) |
Residence | ||||
Home | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Institution | 0.88 (0.38 to 2.05) | 0.84 (0.30 to 2.33) | 3.47 (1.82 to 6.60)*** | 1.64 (0.73 to 3.72) |
Education, years | ||||
0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
1–4 | 0.73 (0.46 to 1.18) | 0.79 (0.46 to 1.33) | 0.31 (0.21 to 0.47)*** | 0.59 (0.36 to 0.96)* |
5–12 | 0.43 (0.24 to 0.75)* | 0.51 (0.27 to 0.96)* | 0.14 (0.09 to 0.24)*** | 0.40 (0.21 to 0.76)* |
>12 | 0.51 (0.25 to 1.03) | 0.82 (0.37 to 1.83) | 0.12 (0.06 to 0.25)*** | 0.50 (0.22 to 1.36) |
Marital status | ||||
Single, divorced or widowed | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Married or common-law marriage | 0.77 (0.59 to 1.01) | 1.03 (0.75 to 1.43) | 0.33 (0.26 to 0.42)*** | 0.60 (0.43 to 0.84)* |
Professional activity | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 0.60 (0.25 to 1.43) | 0.81 (0.51 to 1.31) | 0.46 (0.19 to 1.11) | 0.99 (0.35 to 2.78) |
Skin phenotype | ||||
Red-haired with freckles or fair-haired people | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Dark-haired or Latin people | 0.64 (0.46 to 0.88)* | 0.67 (0.47 to 0.95)* | 0.93 (0.68 to 1.27) | 1.13 (0.77 to 1.66) |
Arabic, Asian or Black people | 1.07 (0.54 to 2.12) | 0.88 (0.42 to 1.84) | 1.80 (0.96 to 3.40) | 2.24 (1.03 to 4.86)* |
Household income, € | ||||
<500 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
500–999 | 0.53 (0.33 to 0.84)* | 0.58 (0.35 to 0.95)* | 0.38 (0.25 to 0.59)*** | 0.70 (0.42 to 1.16) |
≥1000 | 0.33 (0.20 to 0.56)*** | 0.41 (0.23 to 0.75)* | 0.17 (0.10 to 0.28)*** | 0.52 (0.28 to 0.98)* |
Does not know or does not declare | 0.53 (0.35 to 0.80)* | 0.60 (0.38 to 0.95)* | 0.50 (0.34 to 0.73)*** | 0.85 (0.53 to 1.34) |
Physical activity (IPAQ)† | ||||
Normal | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Low | 1.00 (0.67 to 1.48) | 0.73 (0.47 to 1.14) | 2.33 (1.67 to 3.25)*** | 1.26 (0.83 to 1.89) |
Cognitive performance (MMSE) | ||||
Normal | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Impairment | 2.20 (1.19 to 4.06)* | 1.95 (0.99 to 3.81) | 2.64 (1.48 to 4.69)** | 1.38 (0.69 to 2.75) |
Smoking habits | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 1.22 (0.66 to 2.26) | 1.31 (0.67 to 2.56) | 0.98 (0.54 to 1.78) | 1.84 (0.92 to 3.72) |
Alcoholic beverages consumption, n/day | ||||
None | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate (women=1, men=1 or 2) | 0.70 (0.52 to 0.95)* | 0.78 (0.54 to 1.13) | 0.38 (0.28 to 0.50)*** | 0.49 (0.32 to 0.73)*** |
Excessive (women ≥2, men ≥3) | 1.06 (0.71 to 1.58) | 1.23 (0.77 to 1.96) | 0.37 (0.24 to 0.57)*** | 0.48 (0.27 to 0.85)* |
Self-perception of health | ||||
Very good/good | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate | 1.15 (0.87 to 1.53) | 1.05 (0.77 to 1.44) | 1.48 (1.12 to 1.95)* | 1.13 (0.81 to 1.60) |
Bad/very bad | 1.50 (0.99 to 2.25) | 1.30 (0.82 to 2.06) | 3.14 (2.16 to 4.55)*** | 1.49 (0.93 to 2.40) |
Medication and supplements use | ||||
No use | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
With vitamin D | 0.23 (0.12 to 0.43)*** | 0.20 (0.11 to 0.40)*** | 0.17 (0.09 to 0.32)*** | 0.11 (0.05 to 0.22)*** |
Unknown composition or use | 1.29 (0.78 to 2.15) | 1.15 (0.65 to 2.04) | 2.60 (1.67 to 4.04)*** | 1.42 (0.85 to 2.39) |
Undernutrition status (MNA-SF) | ||||
Not undernourished | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Risk of undernutrition or undernutrition | 1.08 (0.73 to 1.60) | 0.99 (0.64 to 1.53) | 1.93 (1.37 to 2.71)*** | 1.39 (0.91 to 2.12) |
Waist circumference, cm | ||||
Women ≤80 cm, men ≤94 cm | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Women: 81–88 cm, men: 95–102 cm | 0.96 (0.63 to 1.47) | 1.09 (0.69 to 1.71) | 1.05 (0.67 to 1.65) | 1.16 (0.68 to 2.00) |
Women >88 cm, men >102 cm | 1.59 (1.09 to 2.31)* | 1.62 (1.07 to 2.50)* | 3.28 (2.22 to 4.84)*** | 2.90 (1.79 to 4.69)*** |
Season of blood sample collection | ||||
Late autumn or winter | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Spring or summer | 0.67 (0.51 to 0.88)* | 0.60 (0.43 to 0.85)* | 0.25 (2.07 to 2.97)*** | 0.34 (0.24 to 0.48)*** |
*, ** and ***: p values for multinomial logistic regression analyses. *p<0.05, **p=0.001, ***p<0.001.
†Normal physical activity levels defined as ≥383 kcal/week (men) and ≥270 kcal/week (women); low physical activity levels defined as <383 kcal/week (men) and <270 kcal/week (women).
25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; CI, Confidence Interval; IPAQ, International Physical Activity Questionnaire; MMSE, Mini Mental State Examination; MNA-SF: Mini-Nutritional Assessment – Short-Form.