Pedometer-determined ambulatory activity in individuals with type 2 diabetes
Introduction
Despite the well-known multiple benefits of a physically active lifestyle, individuals with type 2 diabetes are generally described as sedentary. The empirical evidence to support this characterization is meager, however. For instance, a review of survey data from the 1990 United States National Health Interview Survey found that 66% of individuals with diabetes (both type 1 and type 2) reported no participation in regular leisure-time physical activity, compared with 59% of nondiabetics, although this difference was negated when activity limitations were considered [1]. These distinct populations did not differ on mean number of bouts of exercise, average number of minutes per bout of exercise, or mean total weekly hours of exercise [1]. Differences were noted, however, in activity choices. People with diabetes were more likely to engage in walking and less likely to engage in more vigorous activities (e.g. jogging, dancing, tennis, bicycling, skiing, weight-lifting, etc.) than were people without diabetes [1]. However, walking is considered the least reliably recalled physical activity [2], [3], [4]. In addition, most, if not all, self-report instruments suffer from restrictive floor effects that limit researchers to describing the percentage of individuals who fail to register on the preferred instrument [5]. For example, Hays and Clark [6] recently reported that almost 55% of a sample of 260 individuals with type 2 diabetes reported zero minutes of weekly physical activity in response to questions about walking behaviors. Surely, these individuals are doing some level of physical activity that apparently continues to escape our best efforts at quantification through self-report questionnaires. If we are to document the physical activity patterns of this population, as well as investigate how changes in habitual behaviors impact on important health outcomes, then it is imperative that we accurately quantify walking behaviors.
The use of simple and inexpensive pedometers to quantify physical activity, specifically ambulatory activity, is a recent development [5], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]. Compared with accelerometers, pedometers are less expensive and more practical for both research and clinical applications [5]. In addition to being used to quantify habitual walking activity, pedometers may be useful motivational tools to encourage individuals with type 2 diabetes to increase walking behaviors [12], [13]. Researchers and clinicians focused on type 2 diabetes require normative data to assist with interpretation of pedometer data. In addition users want to know how pedometer output (steps/day) is related to health indicators. The purpose of this paper is to present, as a starting point, descriptive data from the first pedometer-assessed ambulatory activity database of individuals with type 2 diabetes. This database also permits an examination of the relationship between steps/day and body mass index or BMI (an indicator of body composition), as well as self-reported frequency of exercise, perceived health status, and perceived readiness (i.e. stages of change) for exercise.
Section snippets
Recruitment
A manual search of patient files at the Lawson Diabetes Centre (LDC) in Southwestern Ontario was used to generate a sampling pool of potential subjects. The LDC offers patient-centered programs in all aspects of diabetes, as well as for a variety of health care trainees and professionals. The LDC is staffed by a team of Certified Diabetes Educators, dietitians, and nurses, some having experience in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. There is close cooperation with family practices
Results
Seven hundred and forty eligible subjects were identified through manual search of patient files at the study center. Research staff attempted contact with potential subjects by telephone. Three hundred and ninety-six (53.5%) eligible subjects could not be contacted due to wrong phone numbers (115 or 29.0%) or inability to reach patient by telephone after four to five repeated attempts (290 or 71.0%). Of those contacted, 225 (65.4%) agreed to participate in the project. The remainder refused
Discussion
This is the first study to describe ambulatory activity, measured using a simple and inexpensive pedometer, in free-living individuals with type 2 diabetes. The pedometer values recorded herein (6662±3080 steps/day) are slightly lower in comparison to two other similarly-aged samples without reported diabetes. Tudor-Locke et al. [21] reported values of 7370±3080 steps/day in a bi-ethnic sample of 109 adults, mean age 44.9±15.8 years. McClung et al. [22] reported 7781±2807 steps/day in a
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Canadian Diabetes Association. We would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the staff and educators at the Lawson Diabetes Center, St. Joseph's Health Center, London, Ontario, Canada.
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