Abstract
The relationship between reproductive maturation and the onset of sexual behavior in boys across cultures is unclear. To explore the relative timing of pubertal events and their relationship to the onset of sexual behavior, we used data collected from 442 Zimbabwe school boys aged 12–18 years. Measures of reproductive maturation included self-reported spontaneous nocturnal emission, secondary sexual characteristics, and salivary testosterone. Behavioral measures included age at first sexual fantasies, non-coital sexual behavior, and coitus. Sigmoid interpolation curve techniques indicated a median age of first erection at 10.75 ± 0.11 years, first sexual fantasy at 12.66 ± 0.03 years, first spontaneous nocturnal emission at 13.02 ± 0.03 years, and adult levels of blood testosterone at 17.2 ± 0.7 years. First reported spontaneous nocturnal emission was significantly related to all measures of sexual behavior. Multiple regression models indicated that first reported spontaneous nocturnal emission was a stronger predictor of sexual behavior than variation in secondary sexual characteristics. In addition, testosterone was a significant predictor of sexual fantasies and intercourse, independent of first reported spontaneous nocturnal emission. These results confirm earlier findings in other populations that self-reported spontaneous nocturnal emissions can be used as a marker of pubertal timing among adolescent boys. They also suggest that variation in testosterone plays a role in the onset of sexual behavior among boys, beyond its relationship to developmental timing. The behavioral mechanisms represented by the significant effects of testosterone reported here remain to be investigated.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agmo, A. (1999). Sexual motivation: An inquiry into events determining the occurrence of sexual behavior. Behavioral Brain Research, 105, 129–150.
Boohene, E., Tsozdai, J., Hardee-Cleveland, K., Weir, S., & Janowitz, B. (1991). Fertility and contraception use among young adults in Harare, Zimbabwe. Studies in Family Planning, 22, 264–271.
Borneman, M. S., Ramasodi, P., Schulenburg, G. W., Boomker, D., & Reif, S. (1990). The onset of puberty is Tswana schoolboys: A need for sex education. Andrologia, 22, 463–465.
Buga, G. A., Amoko, D. H., & Ncayiyana, D. J. (1996). Sexual behavior, contraceptive practice and reproductive health among school adolescents in rural Transkei. South African Medical Journal, 86, 523–527.
Cameron, N., Grieve, C. A., Kruger, A., & Leschner, K. F. (1993). Secondary sexual development in rural and urban South African black children. Annals of Human Biology, 20, 583–593.
Campbell, B. C., Gillett-Netting, R., & Meloy, M. (2004). Timing of reproductive maturation in rural vs. urban Tonga boys, Zambia. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 213–227.
Campbell, B. C., Plum, E., & Kigozi, G. (2004). Impact of household type on determinants of sexual behavior among adolescent boys in Rakai District, Uganda. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, Boston University.
Capaldi, D., Smith, A. M., & de Visser, R. (1996). Predicting the timing of first sexual intercourse for at-risk adolescent males. Child Development, 67, 344–359.
Carlier, J. G., & Stenno, O. P. (1984). Oligarche: The age at first ejaculation. Andrologia, 17, 104–106.
Crockett, L. J., Bingham, C. R., Chopak, J. S., & Vicary, J. R. (1996). Timing of first sexual intercourse: The role of social control, social learning and problem behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 89–111.
Edgardh, K. (2002). Sexual behavior and early coitarche in a national sample of 17-year-old Swedish boys. Acta Paediatrica, 91, 985–991.
Finkelstein, J. W., Susman, E. J., Chinchilli, V. M., D'Arcangelo, M. R., Kunselman, S. J., Schwab, J., et al. (1997). Effects of estrogen or testosterone on self-reported sexual responses and behaviors in hypogonadal adolescents. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83, 2281–2285.
Gueye, M., Castle, S., & Kante, M. K. (2001). Timing of first intercourse among Malian adolescents: Implications for contraceptive use. International Family Planning Perspectives, 27, 56–62.
Halpern, C. T., Udry, J. R., Campbell, B. C., & Suchindran, C. (1993). Testosterone and pubertal development as predictors of sexual activity: A panel analysis of adolescent males. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 436–447.
Halpern, C. T., Udry, J. R., Campbell, B. C., Suchindran, C., & Mason, G. A. (1994). Testosterone and religiosity as predictors of sexual activity among adolescent males: A biosocial model. Journal of Biosocial Science, 26, 217–234.
Halpern, C. T., Udry, J. R., & Suchindran, C. (1998). Monthly measures of salivary testosterone predict sexual activity in adolescent males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27, 445–465.
Halpern, C. T., Udry, J. R., Suchindran, C., & Campbell, B. (2000). Adolescent male's willingness to report masturbation. Journal of Sex Research, 37, 327–332.
Ji, C. Y., & Ohswawa, S. (2000). Onset of the release of spermatozoa (spermarche) in Chinese male youths. American Journal of Human Biology, 12, 577–587.
Krithivas, K. M., Y. S., Mohr, B. A., Wilcox, C. J., Batter, S. J., Brown, M., et al. (1999). Evidence that the CAG repeat in the androgen receptor gene is associated with the age related decline in serum androgen levels in men. Journal of Endocrinology, 162, 137–142.
Kulin, H. E., Frontera, M. A., Demers, L. M., Bartholomew, M. J., & Lloyd, T. A. (1989). The onset of sperm production in pubertal boys: Relationship to gonadotropin excretion. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood, 143, 190–193.
Lam, T. H., Shi, H. J., Ho, L. M., Stewart, S. M., & Fan, S. (2002). Timing of pubertal maturation and heterosexual behavior among Hong Chinese adolescents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 359–366.
Lammers, C., Ireland, M., Resnick, M., & Blum, R. (1998). Influences on adolescents' decision to postpone onset of sexual intercourse: A survival analysis of virginity among youths aged 13 to 18 years. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 42–48.
Lee, K. K., Berman, N., Alexander, G. M., Hull, L., Swerdloff, R. S., & Wang, C. (2003). A simple self-report diary for assessing psychosexual function in hypogonadal men. Journal of Andrology, 24, 688–698.
Maras, A., Laucht, M., Gerdes, D., Wilhelm, S., Haack, D., Malisova, L., et al. (2003). Association of testosterone and diyhdrotestosterone with externalizing behavior in adolescent boys and girls. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 932–940.
McNicholas, T. A., Dean, J. D., Mulder, H., Carnegie, C., & Jones, N. A. (2003). A novel testosterone gel formulation normalizes androgen levels in hypogonadal men, with improvements in body composition and sexual function. British Journal of Urology International, 91, 69–74.
Meekers, D., & Ahmed, G. (2000). Contemporary patterns of adolescent sexuality in urban Botswana. Journal of Biosocial Science, 31, 361–374.
Mott, F. L., & Haurin, R. J. (1988). Linkages between sexual activity and alcohol and drug use among American adolescents. Family Planning Perspectives, 20, 128–136.
Nielsen, C. T., Skakkebaek, N. E., Richardson, D. W., Darling, J. A., Hunter, W. M., Jorgensen, M., et al. (1986). Onset of the release of spermatozoa (spermarche) in boys in relation to age, testicular growth, pubic hair and height. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 62, 532–535.
Prossinger, H., & Bookstein, F. L. (2003). Statistical estimators of frontal sinus cross section ontogeny from very noisy data. Journal of Morphology, 257, 1–9.
Richardson, D. W., & Short, R. V. (1978). Time of onset of sperm production in boys. Journal of Biosocial Science, 5, 15–21.
Rilling, J. K., Worthman, C. M., Campbell, B. C., Stallings, J. F., & Mibzvo, M. (1996). Ratios of plasma and salivary testosterone through puberty: Production versus bioavailability. Steroids, 61, 374–378.
Schaefer, F., Marr, J., Seidel, C., Tilgen, W., & Scharer, K. (1990). Assessment of gonadal maturation by evaluation of spermaturia. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 65, 1205–1207.
Seidman, S. N., Araujo, A. B., Roose, S. P., & McKinlay, J. B. (2001). Testosterone level, androgen receptor polymorphism, and depressive symptoms in middle-aged men. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 371–376.
Smith, E., Udry, J. R., & Morris, N. (1985). Pubertal development and friends: A biosocial explanation of adolescent sexual behavior. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 183–192.
Udry, J. R., Billy, J. O., Morris, N. W., Groff, T. H., & Raj, M. H. (1985). Serum androgenic hormones motivate sexual behavior in adolescent boys. Fertility and Sterility, 43, 90–94.
Worthman, C. M. (1993). Biocultural interactions in human development. In M. A. Pereira & L. A. Fairbanks (Eds.), Juvenile primates: Life history, development and behavior (pp. 339–358). New York: Oxford University Press.
Zitzmann, M., & Nieschlag, E. (2003). The CAG repeat polymorphism within the androgen receptor gene and maleness. International Journal of Andrology, 26, 76–83.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Campbell, B.C., Prossinger, H. & Mbzivo, M. Timing of Pubertal Maturation and the Onset of Sexual Behavior among Zimbabwe School Boys. Arch Sex Behav 34, 505–516 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-6276-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-6276-7