Perceptions about the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children
Introduction
There is growing evidence that children who are physically active are at decreased risk of developing cardiovascular risk factors [1], and there is some evidence that physical fitness during early adolescence is related to positive cardiovascular risk profiles in adulthood [2], [3]. In Australia, proxy reports by parents indicate that 32% of children aged 5 years, 69% of children aged 11 years and 58% aged 14 years participated in organised sport over a 12-month period [4]. However, self-report data suggest that one in five adolescents in school year 8 (approximately 13 years old) are not sufficiently active for health [5]. No such data are available for younger children.
While most data regarding children's physical activity behaviour is limited to organised sport, it is likely that active play and other overlooked sources of activity such as active transport are also important [6], [7]. Walking and cycling to school and to other destinations in a child's local neighborhood have been shown to be associated with greater anatomic function [8], may be an important source of physical activity among children [7], [8] and may help to establish active lifestyle habits and decrease reliance on motorised transport in adulthood [6]. Consistent with other Western countries [8], [9], [10], fewer Australian children are now walking to school [11], [12], [13]. In 1999, 26% of primary school-aged children in Perth, Australia, walked to or from school, including only 42% of those who lived within a 10-min walk from school [11]. In another Australian study conducted in 1999, 81% of all trips made by children aged 5–9 years and 62% of those made by children aged 10–14 years were by car [12]. Further, an international study of 6- to 9-year-old children's modes of travel found that Australasian children had lower levels of walking and cycling than children in Canada and Sweden, with Australasian children relying more heavily on car travel [14].
Social ecological theory recognises that behaviours are influenced by social and environmental factors, as well as intrapersonal factors [15]. The local environment intuitively seems likely to be an important influence on walking and cycling [7]. However, little is known about environmental correlates of walking or cycling as a mode of transport among children [16] or adults [17], [18], [19]. Among adults, aesthetics, terrain, traffic, dedicated walking or cycle ways, and accessibility of facilities (including distance and convenience) have been shown to be associated with walking [20], [21], [22], [23], and walking to work has been shown to be related to a positive neighborhood environment score [19]. Common reasons given by parents of primary school children for their child not walking to school include a long walking distance, traffic safety and fear of attack [11], [12], [24], and children have also cited traffic safety and fear of crime as reasons for not walking to school [25]. However, no studies have examined associations between such perceptions and children's walking. More broadly, however, access to facilities has been associated with participation in physical activity among children aged 3–12 years [16], and high neighborhood crime rates have been associated with lower participation in physical activity among U.S. adolescents [26]. One study, however, found a positive association between perceived neighborhood hazards and physical activity among children [27].
There is a paucity of data on environmental correlates of walking and cycling, particularly among children. Such data could be used to overcome barriers and increase participation in regular physical activity. The present study examined associations between parent's perceptions of the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children aged 5–6 years and 10–12 years. Associations between 10-and 12-year-old children's own perceptions of their neighborhood and walking and cycling were also examined, along with their perceptions of their parent's views.
Section snippets
Methods
Families were surveyed about their children's walking and cycling, and their perceptions of their local neighborhood. Two self-completion questionnaires were developed. The first was administered to parents and the second was administered only to children aged 10–12 years. Ethics clearance was received from the Deakin University Ethics Committee and the Department of Education and Training Victoria. Parents completed their questionnaire at home, while the 10- to 12-year-old children completed
Sample characteristics
A similar proportion of boys' and girls' families took part (Table 1). Most families reported usually speaking English in their household and most parents or guardians were married. Maternal education (SES) was evenly distributed among children aged 10–12 years. Approximately 40% of mothers of younger children were tertiary educated (high SES). More than 60% of all families owned more than one car, and dog ownership was also common. On average, the children in the study had 1.5 siblings.
Walking and cycling trips
School
Discussion
This study is one of the first to examine associations between perceptions of the local neighborhood and walking or cycling as a means of transport among children. The study found that many parental perceptions of the environment were associated with children's walking or cycling to destinations in the local neighborhood in multivariate analyses. Perceptions of limited access to public transport options and parks or sports grounds were associated with a lesser likelihood of walking or cycling
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Financial Markets Foundation for Children. David Crawford is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council/National Heart Foundation Career Development Award. Amanda Telford is supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award. Jo Salmon is supported by a Public Health Fellowship from the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation. The authors wish to thank Alison Carver and Damien Jolley for their assistance with data analyses.
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